Fire Science. From Chemistry to Landscape Management

Foreword I
Foreword II
Acknowledgments
Introduction
	Why We Wrote This Book
	How This Book Is Organized
	Why We Need to Live With and Use Fire Now
	References
Contents
About the Authors
List of Symbols
Part I: Combustion and Heat Transfer Processes
	References
Chapter 1: Chemical Conditions for Ignition
	1.1 What Conditions Are Required for Ignition?
	1.2 Ignitability and Flammability
	1.3 Ignitability Limits
	1.4 Mixing Between Fuel Gases and Air
	1.5 Ignitability of Wildland Fuels
	1.6 Implications
	References
Chapter 2: From Fuels to Smoke: Chemical Processes
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Combustion at the Level of Atoms and Molecules
	2.3 Combustion of Solid Fuels
	2.4 Combustion Completeness and Emission Factors
	2.5 From Emissions to Smoke Composition
	2.6 Implications
	2.7 Interactive Spreadsheet: COMBUSTION
	References
Chapter 3: Heat Production
	3.1 Heat Production
	3.2 The Net Energy Release in Combustion and the Strength of Chemical Bonds
	3.3 Energy Release and Heat of Combustion
	3.4 Estimating Heat Release from Fuel Composition
	3.5 Estimating Heat Yield
	3.6 Implications
	3.7 Interactive Spreadsheet: COMBUSTION
	References
Chapter 4: Heat for Pre-ignition and Flames
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 From Heat Supply to Temperature Rise: Specific Heat Capacity
	4.3 From Heat Supply to Phase Changes: Latent Heat of Vaporization
	4.4 Evaluating the Heat of Pre-ignition for Wildland Fuels
		4.4.1 Estimating the Main Components of the Heat of Pre-ignition
		4.4.2 Combining the Components of the Heat of Pre-ignition of the Fuel
	4.5 Flame Temperatures
	4.6 Implications
	4.7 Interactive Spreadsheet: COMBUSTION
	References
Chapter 5: Heat Transfer
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Modes of Heat Transfer
	5.3 Radiation
	5.4 Conduction
	5.5 Convection and Solid Mass Transport
	5.6 Implications
	5.7 Interactive Spreadsheets: RADIATION_Fireline_Safety, CONVECTION, CONDUCTION_Soils_Plants, and MASS_TRANSFER_Spotting
	References
Part II: Fuels, Fire Behavior and Effects
	Reference
Chapter 6: Fuel and Fire Behavior Description
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 The Wildland Fuel Hierarchy
	6.3 Fuel Description
	6.4 Fire Description
	6.5 Implications
	References
Chapter 7: Fire Propagation
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Initial Fire Growth
		7.2.1 Models of Acceleration of Fire Fronts
		7.2.2 The Practical Use of Understanding Initial Fire Growth
	7.3 The Steady-State Spread Rate of a Fireline
		7.3.1 Heat Balance and Fire Spread
		7.3.2 Estimating Fire Spread
			The Spread of Smoldering Fires Modeled from Conduction
			The Spread of Flaming Fires Modeled from Radiation
			The Spread of Flaming Fires Modeled from Reaction Intensity and Propagating Flux Ratio
		7.3.3 The Effects of Wind and Slope on Fire Spread
			The Effect of Wind Speed
			Modeling Wind Speeds Above and Within a Vegetation Layer
			The Effect of Slope
			The Combined Effect of Wind and Slope
		7.3.4 The Effect of Physical Fuel Properties on Fire Spread
			The Effect of Bulk Density
			Other Physical Fuel Properties Used in Fire-Spread Models
		7.3.5 The Effect of Fuel Moisture on Fire Spread
			Maximum Potential Fire Spread Rate at Zero Fuel Moisture Content
			Fire-Spread Rate Decreases with Increasing Fuel Moisture
			Thresholds for Fire Spread and Moisture of Extinction
	7.4 Spatial and Temporal Variability of Fire Spread
		7.4.1 Spatial Variability in Fuels or Topography in the Landscape
		7.4.2 Integrating the Variability of Weather, Fuel, and Topography in Fire Spread Prediction
	7.5 Limitations, Implications, and Applications
	7.6 Interactive Spreadsheets: FIRE_GROWTH, FIRE_RATE_OF_SPREAD, and WIND_PROFILE
	References
Chapter 8: Extreme Fires
	8.1 Introduction: Extreme Fires
	8.2 Extreme Fire Characteristics
		8.2.1 Extreme Fire Size: The Statistical Approach
		8.2.2 Extreme Fire Behavior: The Resistance to Control Approach, Features, and Drivers
	8.3 Crown Fires
		8.3.1 Crown Fire Initiation
		8.3.2 The Conditions for Active Crown Fire Spread
		8.3.3 Crown Fire Rate of Spread
	8.4 Spotting
		8.4.1 Buoyancy and the Fire Plume
			Buoyancy
			Development of the Fire Plume
		8.4.2 Firebrand Generation
		8.4.3 Lofting of Firebrands
			The Aerodynamic Characteristics of Firebrands
			The Maximum Potential Firebrand Lofting Height
		8.4.4 The Transport and Fall of Firebrands: Searching for the Maximum Spotting Distance
		8.4.5 The New Ignitions from Firebrands
		8.4.6 The ``Optimal´´ Firebrand for Long-Range Spotting
	8.5 Complex Fire-Atmosphere Interactions
		8.5.1 The Relative Strength of Buoyancy and Wind
		8.5.2 Downdrafts Associated with Firestorms
		8.5.3 Complex Interactions Between the Environment and Fire, and Between Fires
		8.5.4 Other Hypotheses for Unexpected Fire Behavior
	8.6 Anticipating and Predicting Extreme Fire Behavior
		8.6.1 Predictions on a Daily Basis: Fire Danger Rating
		8.6.2 Predictions on an Hourly Basis
		8.6.3 Forecasting Conditions for Blowup Fires
	8.7 Limitations and Implications
	8.8 Interactive Spreadsheets: CROWNFIRE and MASS_TRANSFER_Spotting
	References
Chapter 9: Fire Effects on Plants, Soils, and Animals
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Heat Transfer Has Implications for Plant Survival and Post-fire Response
		9.2.1 Fire Effects on Plant Crowns
		9.2.2 Fire Effects on Stems, Especially Vascular Cambium
		9.2.3 Fire Effects on Roots and Buds
		9.2.4 Heat and Smoke Effects on Seeds, Including Serotiny
	9.3 Predicting Immediate Fire Effects on Plants
	9.4 Environmental Conditions and Spatial Heterogeneity in Fire Effects Influence Plant Diversity
	9.5 Ecological Implications of Soil Heating
		9.5.1 Consequences of Soil Heating
		9.5.2 The Fate of Organic Matter Influences Soil Processes and Plant Survival
		9.5.3 Carbon, Pyrogenic Carbon, and Fires
		9.5.4 Nitrogen and Other Soil Nutrients Are Affected by Soil Heating
		9.5.5 Hydrophobic Soils
	9.6 Burn Severity
	9.7 Fire Effects on Animals
	9.8 Implications and Management
		9.8.1 Vegetation Trajectories
		9.8.2 Post-fire Soil and Vegetation Treatments
		9.8.3 How Much High Severity Fire Is Natural or Desirable?
	9.9 Conclusions
	9.10 Interactive Spreadsheet: CONDUCTION_Soils_Plants
	References
Chapter 10: Fire and People
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Different Perspectives About Fire
		10.2.1 Fire as a Disaster and Change Agent: Vulnerability, and Resilience
		10.2.2 The Economic Perspective: Costs of Pre-suppression, Suppression, and Net Value Changes
		10.2.3 The Environmental Perspective: Focusing on Ecosystem Services
		10.2.4 An Integrated Fire Risk Framework
	10.3 Protecting People from Fires
		10.3.1 Fire and Skin
		10.3.2 Safe Distances from Fires for Fire Personnel and Others
		10.3.3 Protecting Peoples´ Homes
	10.4 Smoke Can Compromise Human Health
		10.4.1 Smoke from Prescribed Fires and Wildfires
		10.4.2 Smoke Management
		10.4.3 Future Opportunities and Challenges
	10.5 Communities Becoming Fire-Adapted
		10.5.1 Learning Together Through Collaboration
		10.5.2 Learning from Traditional Practices and Scientific Knowledge
	10.6 Implications and Management Considerations
	10.7 Interactive Spreadsheet: RADIATION_Fireline_Safety
	References
Part III: Managing Fuels, Fires, and Landscapes
	References
Chapter 11: Fuel Dynamics and Management
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Dynamics of Fuel Load and Structure
			Drivers of Temporal Changes
		11.1.2 Disturbances, Fuels, and Fire
		11.1.3 Modeling Fuel Accumulation
		11.1.4 Fuel Dynamics and Plant Life Cycle
	11.2 Fuel Moisture Dynamics
		11.2.1 Dead Fuel Moisture
		11.2.2 Live Fuel Moisture
			The Conifer Forests of North America
			Temperate Deciduous Broad Leaves
			Evergreen Trees and Shrubs in Mediterranean-Type Climates
			Forests with Understory Shrubs
	11.3 Fuels Management
		11.3.1 Fuels Management Strategies
		11.3.2 Fuel Reduction Principles and Techniques
			Surface Fuels Treatments
			Canopy Fuels Treatments: Thinning and Pruning
		11.3.3 Fuels Treatment Effectiveness
			Expectations Versus Reality
			Assessments of Fuels Treatment Effectiveness
		11.3.4 Decision Support and Optimization
	11.4 Implications
	11.5 Interactive Spreadsheets: FUEL_DYNAMICS and CROWNFIRE_MITIGATION
	References
Chapter 12: Fire Regimes, Landscape Dynamics, and Landscape Management
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Fire Regime Descriptors
		12.2.1 Temporal Fire Regime Descriptors and Metrics
		12.2.2 Spatial Fire Regime Descriptors and Metrics
		12.2.3 Magnitude
		12.2.4 Perspective on Fire Regimes
	12.3 Data Sources for Describing Fire Regimes
		12.3.1 Tree Rings
		12.3.2 Charcoal and Pollen from Sediments
		12.3.3 Historical Documents
		12.3.4 Remote Sensing
		12.3.5 Simulating Fire Regimes
		12.3.6 Combining Methods to Characterize Past, Present, and Possible Future Fire Regimes
	12.4 Changing Fire Regimes Through Time and over Space
		12.4.1 Climate, Fuels, and People How and Where Fire Regimes Change
		12.4.2 Historical Range of Variability (HRV), Future Range of Variability (FRV), and Resilience
	12.5 Landscape Dynamics and Landscape Management
		12.5.1 Modeling Landscape Dynamics to Inform Landscape Management
		12.5.2 Landscape Restoration, Resilience to Future Fires, and Changing Climate
	12.6 Landscape Management Perspectives
	References
Chapter 13: Integrated Fire Management
	13.1 What Is Integrated Fire Management and Why Do We Need It?
	13.2 Global Success Stories
		13.2.1 Prescribed Fires Alter Wildfires
		13.2.2 Conserving Biodiversity Using Integrated Fire Management
		13.2.3 Working with Partners Through Shared Stewardship and Cooperatives
		13.2.4 Addressing Contemporary Challenges by Adapting Traditional Burning Practices
		13.2.5 Burning in Highly Urbanized Landscapes
	13.3 Applying Integrated Fire Management Effectively
	References
Chapter 14: Futuring: Trends in Fire Science and Management
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Global Changes Already Influence Fires and Fire Effects
		14.2.1 Climate Change: More Extreme Wildfires with More Severe Impacts
		14.2.2 Social Changes: New Challenges and Opportunities
		14.2.3 Global Change and the Australian ``Black Summer´´ Fires
	14.3 Developing Technology and Bigger Data
		14.3.1 Increasing Resolution of Spatial, Spectral, and Temporal Data from Satellite Imagery
		14.3.2 Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
		14.3.3 Digital Aerial Photogrammetry and Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAVs)
		14.3.4 Wireless Sensor Networks
		14.3.5 ``Big Data´´ and Simulation
	14.4 Integrating Fire Science and Management
	14.5 Advancing Education and Training
	14.6 The Future of Fire
	References
Index