Fibers: History, Production, Properties, Market

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Part I: Fundamentals
	1: Definitions
		1.1 Definition of Fibers and Classification
		1.2 Systematic Taxonomy
			1.2.1 Natural Vegetable Fibers
			1.2.2 Animal Natural Fibers
		1.3 Abbreviation
		References
	2: History
		2.1 Natural Fibers
			2.1.1 Flax
			2.1.2 Hemp
			2.1.3 Other Bast Fibers
			2.1.4 Cotton
			2.1.5 Wool
			2.1.6 Silk
			2.1.7 Asbestos
		2.2 Cellulosic Man-Made Fibers
			2.2.1 Nitrocellulose
			2.2.2  Process (Copper Process)
			2.2.3 Cellulose Acetate
			2.2.4 Viscose
			2.2.5 Modal
			2.2.6 Industrial Production of Filament Yarns
			2.2.7 Industrial Production of Staple Fibers
			2.2.8 Lyocell
		2.3 Protein-Based Man-Made Fibers
		2.4 Synthetic Man-Made Fibers
			2.4.1 Polyvinyl Chloride
			2.4.2 Polyamide
				2.4.2.1 Polyamide 66 and Polyamide 6
				2.4.2.2 Discovery of Further Polyamide Types
				2.4.2.3 Aramid
			2.4.3 Polyester
				2.4.3.1 Polyester Terephthalate (PET)
				2.4.3.2 Polytrimethylene Terephthalate (PTT) and Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)
				2.4.3.3 Other Polyester
			2.4.4 Polyacrylonitrile
			2.4.5 Polypropylene
			2.4.6 Polyethylene
			2.4.7 Polylactide
			2.4.8 Short Time Travel
			2.4.9 Carbon Fibers
		2.5 Inorganic Man-Made Fibers
			2.5.1 Glass Fibers
			2.5.2 Basalt Fibers
			2.5.3 Ceramic Fibers
		2.6 Metal Fibers
		References
	3: Market
		3.1 World Fiber Production
		3.2 Regions Producing Natural Fibers
		3.3 Regions and Countries Producing Man-Made Fibers
			3.3.1 World
			3.3.2 Germany
		3.4 Prices
		References
	4: Internal Structure of Fibers
		4.1 Chemical Structure of Fibers
		4.2 Structural Models
		4.3 Crystallinity
			4.3.1 Kinetics of Crystal Formation
			4.3.2 Formation of Lamellae and Crystal Growth
			4.3.3 Formation of Spherolites
			4.3.4 Crystallization Due to Stretching
			4.3.5 Determination of the Degree of Crystallinity
			4.3.6 Influence on Fiber Properties
		4.4 Model Conceptions
		4.5 Crystal Structures
			4.5.1 Polyamide
			4.5.2 Polyester
			4.5.3 Aramid
			4.5.4 Polyolefins
			4.5.5 Polyacrylonitrile
			4.5.6 Cellulosic Fibers
			4.5.7 Protein Fibers
		4.6 Length of the Macromolecules
		4.7 Orientation
		4.8 Drawing Process
		4.9 Summary
		References
Part II: Natural Fibers
	5: Cotton
		5.1 History
		5.2 Cultivation, Growth, Varieties
			5.2.1 Cultivation
			5.2.2 Irrigation
			5.2.3 Breeding
			5.2.4 Varieties
		5.3 Harvest
			5.3.1 Hand picking
			5.3.2 Mechanical harvesting
				5.3.2.1 Spindle Picker
				5.3.2.2 Stripper
				5.3.2.3 Comparison of Harvesting Methods
			5.3.3 Storage and Transport
		5.4 Ginning
			5.4.1 History
			5.4.2 Gin
			5.4.3 Tower Dryer
			5.4.4 Cylinder Cleaner
			5.4.5 Stick Machine
			5.4.6 Gin Machine (Gin Stand)
				5.4.6.1 Roller Gin
				5.4.6.2 Saw Gin
			5.4.7 Lint Cleaner
			5.4.8 Influence of the Ginning on the Fiber Properties
			5.4.9 Bale Press
			5.4.10 Bale Size
			5.4.11 The Wrapping (Emballage)
			5.4.12 Yield
		5.5 Composition and Fine Structure
			5.5.1 Chemical Structure
			5.5.2 Fine Structure
		5.6 Properties
			5.6.1 Fiber Length
			5.6.2 Fiber Fineness
			5.6.3 Strength
			5.6.4 Trash and Foreign Matter
			5.6.5 Color
			5.6.6 Maturity
			5.6.7 Other Properties
		5.7 Classification
			5.7.1 Manual Classification
			5.7.2 High Volume Instruments (HVI) and Fibre Classifying System (FCS)
		5.8 Production, Export, Import
			5.8.1 Producer
			5.8.2 Exporters
			5.8.3 Importers
			5.8.4 Consumer
			5.8.5 Extra Long Staple Cotton (ELS)
		5.9 Important Cotton Producing and Processing Countries
			5.9.1 USA
			5.9.2 China
			5.9.3 India
			5.9.4 Pakistan
			5.9.5 Central Asia
			5.9.6 Australia
			5.9.7 Brazil
			5.9.8 Egypt
			5.9.9 Africa
			5.9.10 Turkey
			5.9.11 Europe
				5.9.11.1 Greece
				5.9.11.2 Spain
		5.10 Processing in Germany
		5.11 Pests
			5.11.1 Boll Weevil
			5.11.2 Boll Worm
			5.11.3 Cotton Louse
			5.11.4 Cotton Bug (Stink Bug)
			5.11.5 White Fly
			5.11.6 Other Diseases
			5.11.7 Pest Control
		5.12 Genetic Engineering (``Engineered Cotton´´)
			5.12.1 General Objectives of Genetic Engineering
			5.12.2 Early Research
			5.12.3 Genetic Modification of Cotton
				5.12.3.1 Herbicide Resistance
				5.12.3.2 Insect Resistance
				5.12.3.3 Development of Resistances
			5.12.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Use of Genetic Engineering in Cotton Cultivation
			5.12.5 Market
				5.12.5.1 China
				5.12.5.2 India
		5.13 Organic Cotton
			5.13.1 Egypt
			5.13.2 India
			5.13.3 China
			5.13.4 Turkey
			5.13.5 Kyrgyzstan
			5.13.6 USA
			5.13.7 Colored Cotton
		5.14 Trade
			5.14.1 Forms of Cotton Trade
			5.14.2 Stock Exchanges
			5.14.3 Futures and Options
			5.14.4 Cotlook Indices
			5.14.5 Cotton Policy of Producing Countries
		5.15 Areas of Application
		5.16 Trends
		References
	6: Bast Fibers
		6.1 Flax (Linen)
			6.1.1 History
			6.1.2 Cultivation
				6.1.2.1 Crop Growing
				6.1.2.2 Growth
				6.1.2.3 Varieties
				6.1.2.4 Harvest
			6.1.3 Structure
			6.1.4 Fiber Extraction
				6.1.4.1 Biological Solubilizing
				6.1.4.2 Chemical Solubilizing
				6.1.4.3 Mechanical Solubilizing (Green Flax Solubilizing)
				6.1.4.4 Other Methods
				6.1.4.5 Rippling
				6.1.4.6 Breaking
				6.1.4.7 Scutching
				6.1.4.8 Hackling
				6.1.4.9 Yarn Production
			6.1.5 Properties
			6.1.6 Classification
			6.1.7 Production
			6.1.8 Trade
			6.1.9 Applications
		6.2 Hemp
			6.2.1 History
			6.2.2 Cultivation
				6.2.2.1 Crop Growing
				6.2.2.2 Growth
				6.2.2.3 Varieties
				6.2.2.4 Harvest
				6.2.2.5 Pests
			6.2.3 Structure
			6.2.4 Fiber Extraction
				6.2.4.1 Retting
				6.2.4.2 Mechanical Solubilizing
			6.2.5 Properties
			6.2.6 Production
			6.2.7 Trade
			6.2.8 Areas of Application
		6.3 Jute
			6.3.1 History
			6.3.2 Growth
			6.3.3 Harvest and Preparation
			6.3.4 Structure
			6.3.5 Properties
			6.3.6 Production and Trade
			6.3.7 Areas of Application
		6.4 Ramie
			6.4.1 History
			6.4.2 Crop Growing
			6.4.3 Varieties
			6.4.4 Structure
			6.4.5 Fiber Extraction
			6.4.6 Properties
			6.4.7 Spinning
			6.4.8 Production
			6.4.9 Areas of Application
		6.5 Kenaf
		6.6 Nettle Fiber
		6.7 Bamboo
			6.7.1 History
			6.7.2 Cultivation Regions
			6.7.3 Properties
			6.7.4 Areas of Application
		6.8 Property Comparison
		References
	7: Hard Fibers
		7.1 Agave Fibers (Sisal, Henequen)
			7.1.1 History
			7.1.2 Cultivation
			7.1.3 Harvesting and Extraction of the Fibers
			7.1.4 Production
			7.1.5 Properties
			7.1.6 Areas of Application
		7.2 Musa Textilis (Manila Hemp, Abac)
		7.3 Pineapple
		7.4 Lily Fibers
		7.5 Grass Fibers
		7.6 Palm Fibers
		References
	8: Fruit Fibers
		8.1 Coir Fibers
		8.2 Kapok (Wool Tree)
		8.3 Poplar Fibers
		8.4 Betel Nut Fibers
		8.5 Cactus Fibers
		References
	9: Wool
		9.1 Terms
		9.2 History
		9.3 Sheep Breeds and Breeding
			9.3.1 Merino
			9.3.2 Lincoln
			9.3.3 Corriedale
			9.3.4 Polwarth
			9.3.5 Romney
			9.3.6 Cheviot
			9.3.7 Perendale
			9.3.8 Border Leicester and English Leicester
		9.4 Wool Extraction
			9.4.1 Manual Shearing
			9.4.2 Mulesing
			9.4.3 Mechanical Shearing
			9.4.4 Chemical Processes
		9.5 Structure of the Wool Fiber
			9.5.1 Follicle
			9.5.2 Morphology
			9.5.3 Biological Composite Structure and Two-Phase Model
			9.5.4 Chemical Composition
		9.6 Features
			9.6.1 Fineness, Length, Crimp, Density, Color, Shine
			9.6.2 Physical Properties
			9.6.3 Mechanical Properties
			9.6.4 Chemical Behavior
			9.6.5 Thermal Behavior
			9.6.6 Environmental and Usage Behavior
		9.7 Classification
		9.8 Production
			9.8.1 Sheep Flock
			9.8.2 World Wool Production
			9.8.3 Development of Wool Production
			9.8.4 Australia
				9.8.4.1 Pastoral Low Rainfall Zone
				9.8.4.2 Wheat and Pastoral Zone
				9.8.4.3 Pastoral High Rainfall Zone
			9.8.5 New Zealand
			9.8.6 South Africa
			9.8.7 Uruguay
			9.8.8 Argentina
			9.8.9 United Kingdom
			9.8.10 Spain
			9.8.11 Germany
		9.9 Trade
		9.10 Wool Research
		9.11 Areas of Application
		9.12 Wool Seals
		References
	10: Fine Animal Hair
		10.1 Camel
			10.1.1 Dromedary
			10.1.2 Bactrian Camel
			10.1.3 Llama
			10.1.4 Alpaca
			10.1.5 Guanaco
			10.1.6 Vicuña
			10.1.7 Pako vicuña
		10.2 Goat
			10.2.1 Cashmere
			10.2.2 Mohair
			10.2.3 Kashgora
			10.2.4 Qiviut
		10.3 Angora Rabbit
		10.4 Yak
		10.5 Horsehair
		10.6 Dog Hair
		10.7 Fur Hair
		10.8 Comparison of the Most Important Fine Animal Hair
		References
	11: Silk
		11.1 Terms
		11.2 History
		11.3 Breeding
		11.4 Structure
			11.4.1 Crystalline Areas
			11.4.2 Fibroin
			11.4.3 Sericin
		11.5 Classification
			11.5.1 Cocoons
			11.5.2 Raw Silk
		11.6 Reeling
		11.7 Terms for Silk Products
		11.8 Spinning Mill
			11.8.1 Schappe Spinning
			11.8.2 Bourette Spinning
		11.9 Production
		11.10 Properties
			11.10.1 Fineness, Density, Color, Luster, Handle
			11.10.2 Tenacity and Elongation
			11.10.3 Mechanical Properties
			11.10.4 Chemical Properties
			11.10.5 Thermal Properties
			11.10.6 Usage Behavior
			11.10.7 Other Properties
		11.11 Finishing
			11.11.1 Degumming
			11.11.2 Weighting (Loading)
			11.11.3 Bleaching
			11.11.4 Weaving
			11.11.5 Dyeing
			11.11.6 Printing
		11.12 Areas of Application
		11.13 Tussah Silk (Tussar or Tasar Silk)
		11.14 Other Silks
			11.14.1 Butterfly Silk
			11.14.2 Byssus
			11.14.3 Spider Silk
				11.14.3.1 Types of Spider Silk
				11.14.3.2 Properties
				11.14.3.3 Applications
				11.14.3.4 Artificial Spider Silk
		References
	12: Asbestos
		12.1 Terms and Definitions
		12.2 History
		12.3 Origin, Geology
		12.4 Deposits
		12.5 Generation
		12.6 Classification
		12.7 Chemical Composition and Structure
			12.7.1 Chrysotile
			12.7.2 Amphibole
		12.8 Properties
			12.8.1 Fineness, Length, Density, Color, Gloss, Handle
			12.8.2 Microscopic Image
			12.8.3 Mechanical Properties
			12.8.4 Physical Behavior
			12.8.5 Chemical Behavior
			12.8.6 Thermal Behavior
		12.9 Production and Consumption
		12.10 Environmental Behavior
		12.11 Processing
		12.12 Areas of Application
		12.13 Health Hazards and Damage
		12.14 Refurbishment of Buildings Containing Asbestos
		12.15 Substitute Materials
		References
	13: Other Natural Fibers
		13.1 Cellulosic Fibers
			13.1.1 Akon
			13.1.2 Floss Silk Tree
			13.1.3 Willow
			13.1.4 Woolgrass
			13.1.5 Typha
			13.1.6 Urena-Ur, Aramina, Congo Jute
			13.1.7 Rosella, Java Jute
			13.1.8 Sun (Crotolaria juncea)
			13.1.9 Lotus Silk
			13.1.10 Other Bast Fibers
		13.2 Animal Fibers
			13.2.1 Siberian Ibex (Yangir)
			13.2.2 Tibetan Antelope (Chiru)
			13.2.3 Mangalica
			13.2.4 Whale Whiskers
		References
Part III: Chemical Fibers: Processes and Machines
	14: Man-Made Fibers: Polymer Formation Processes
		14.1 Extraction of Raw Materials from Oil, Coal and Natural Gas
		14.2 Raw Material Extraction from Cellulose
		14.3 Raw Material Extraction from Protein
		14.4 Polymer Formation
			14.4.1 Polymerization
				14.4.1.1 Basics
				14.4.1.2 Radical Polymerization
				14.4.1.3 Ionic Polymerization
				14.4.1.4 Process Engineering
			14.4.2 Polycondensation
				14.4.2.1 Basics
				14.4.2.2 Reaction Rate and Turnover
				14.4.2.3 Solid State Polycondensation (SSP)
			14.4.3 Polyaddition
			14.4.4 Comparison of Chain Growth Reaction and Step Growth Reaction
			14.4.5 Molecular Weight Distribution
		14.5 Formation of Polymers from Several Components: Copolymers
			14.5.1 Grafting and Macromonomers
			14.5.2 Coextrusion
			14.5.3 Additivation
		14.6 Recycling
		References
	15: Aggregates for Polymer Formation
		15.1 Reactor Types
		15.2 Autoclave
		15.3 Disk Ring Reactor
		15.4 VK Tube
		15.5 Discharge and Booster Pumps
		15.6 Tube Flows
		15.7 Heat Exchanger
			15.7.1 Principles of Heat Exchange
			15.7.2 Tube Bundle Heat Exchanger
			15.7.3 Electric Heating Tapes
			15.7.4 Evaporator with Heat Transfer Oil
			15.7.5 Heat Exchanger Types and Their Application
		15.8 Static Mixers
		15.9 Granulator
		15.10 Dryer
			15.10.1 Shaft Dryer (Flash Dryer)
			15.10.2 Tumble Dryer
			15.10.3 Fluidized Bed Dryer
			15.10.4 Paddle Dryer
			15.10.5 Crystallization
			15.10.6 Drying Speed
			15.10.7 Energy Balance
		References
	16: Processes for the Production of Man-Made Fibers
		16.1 Process Steps
		16.2 Solution Spinning
			16.2.1 Dry Spinning
			16.2.2 Wet Spinning
			16.2.3 Funnel Spinning
			16.2.4 Gel Spinning
			16.2.5 Liquid Crystal Spinning
			16.2.6 Dispersion Spinning
			16.2.7 Reaction Spinning
		16.3 Melt Spinning
		16.4 Spinnability
		16.5 Orientation of Macromolecules and Mechanical Properties
		16.6 Theory of Drawing
			16.6.1 Drafting of Amorphous Filaments
			16.6.2 Drafting of Crystalline Filaments
		16.7 Force-Elongation Curve During Drafting
		16.8 Spinning Orientation and Take-Up Speed
		16.9 Spin Dyeing
		References
	17: Aggregates for the Production of Synthetic Filaments
		17.1 Extruder
		17.2 Filter
			17.2.1 Sand Filter
			17.2.2 Fabric Filter
			17.2.3 Nonwovens Filter
			17.2.4 Revolver Filter
		17.3 Spin Pump
		17.4 Melt Spinneret
			17.4.1 Hole Pattern
			17.4.2 Hole Cross Sections
			17.4.3 Spinneret Types
			17.4.4 Hollow Fibers
		17.5 Spinning Packages
		17.6 Spinning Beam
		17.7 Quench Duct
		17.8 Spin Preparation
		17.9 Drafting
		17.10 Entangling
		17.11 Winder
		References
	18: Aggregates for the Production of Solution Spun Man-Made Fibers
		18.1 Reactor
		18.2 Filter
		18.3 Spinning Pump
		18.4 Spinneret
		18.5 Winder
		References
	19: Processes for the Production of Textile Filament Yarns
		19.1 POY Process
		19.2 FDY Process
		19.3 FOY Process
		19.4 Performance Increase in POY Spinning of Polyester
			19.4.1 Modification of the Spinning Process
			19.4.2 Chemical Modification
			19.4.3 Physical Modification
		References
	20: Processes for the Production of Industrial Yarns
		20.1 Reactor
		20.2 FDY Process
		20.3 Draw Twisting
		20.4 Cabling
			20.4.1 Two-Step Process
			20.4.2 Direct Cabling
			20.4.3 Yarn Path
			20.4.4 Machine
		References
	21: Process for the Production of Monofilaments
		21.1 Production
		21.2 Properties and Typical Applications
		References
	22: Process for the Production of Carpet Yarns
		22.1 Spinneret
		22.2 Process
		Reference
	23: Process for the Production of Film Yarns
		23.1 Basics
		23.2 Technical Data
		23.3 Aggregates
		23.4 Products
		Reference
	24: Processes for the Production of Staple Fibers
		24.1 Market
		24.2 Production
			24.2.1 Two-Step Process
			24.2.2 Single-Stage Process
			24.2.3 Spin-Draw Texturing Process
		24.3 Conversion of Fiber Cables
			24.3.1 Cutting Conversion
			24.3.2 Breaking Converter
			24.3.3 Flock Fibers
			24.3.4 Baling
		24.4 Features
		References
	25: Processes for the Production of Nonwovens
		25.1 Spunbond
			25.1.1 Desing of a Spunbond Line
			25.1.2 Web Formation
			25.1.3 Nonwoven Bonding
		25.2 Meltblown Process
		25.3 Products
		25.4 Market
		References
	26: Bicomponent Fibers
		26.1 Terms
			26.1.1 Side-by-Side Type
			26.1.2 Core/Sheath Type
			26.1.3 Matrix/Fibril Type
		26.2 History
		26.3 Source Materials
		26.4 Manufacturing Technologies
			26.4.1 Side-by-Side (S/S)
			26.4.2 Core/Sheath (C/S)
			26.4.3 Matrix/Fibril Fibers or Islands-in-the-Sea
				26.4.3.1 Segmented Pie (Matrix/Fibril Type)
		26.5 Fine Fibers
		26.6 Properties
			26.6.1 Side-by-Side (S/S) Fibers
			26.6.2 Core/Sheath Fibers (C/S)
			26.6.3 Matrix/Fibril Fibers (M/F)
			26.6.4 Tri-component Fibers
			26.6.5 Calligraphic Fibers
			26.6.6 Physical and Textile-Technological Characteristic Values
		26.7 Areas of Application
			26.7.1 Side-by-Side Fibers (S/S)
			26.7.2 Core/Sheath Fibers (C/S)
			26.7.3 Matrix/Fibril Fibers (M/F)
		26.8 Market
		References
	27: Fine Fibers
		27.1 Electrospinning
			27.1.1 History
			27.1.2 Sense and Purpose
			27.1.3 Principle
			27.1.4 Needleless Spinning
			27.1.5 Parameters Influencing the Spinning Result
				27.1.5.1 Polymer Molecular Weight
				27.1.5.2 Concentration of the Spinning Solution
				27.1.5.3 Electric Field
				27.1.5.4 Humidity
			27.1.6 Influence on Fiber Deposition
			27.1.7 Fiber Orientation
				27.1.7.1 Rotating Target
				27.1.7.2 Rotating Sharpened Disc
				27.1.7.3 Rotating Disc with Directional Polymer Application
				27.1.7.4 Rotating Collector
				27.1.7.5 Rotating Cable Drum
				27.1.7.6 Fiber Alignment Via an Interstitial Space
				27.1.7.7 Influence of the Distance Between the Target Halves
				27.1.7.8 Influence of a Negative Voltage Applied to the Target
			27.1.8 Fiber Strength
		27.2 Melt Electrospinning
		27.3 Flash Spinning
		27.4 Centrifugal Spinning
		27.5 Areas of Application
		References
	28: Aerogels
		28.1 Manufacturing Principle
		28.2 Aerogel Fibers
			28.2.1 Sol-Gel Process
			28.2.2 Electrospinning
		28.3 Features
		28.4 Applications
		References
	29: Texturing
		29.1 False Twist Texturing
			29.1.1 Principle
			29.1.2 Twist Insertion
			29.1.3 Heater and Cooling Zone
			29.1.4 Yarn Structure
			29.1.5 Structure of the Machine
			29.1.6 Influencing Variables and Their Effect
		29.2 Air-Jet Texturing
			29.2.1 Taslan Process
			29.2.2 BCF Process
		29.3 Other Processes
			29.3.1 Twist/Untwist Texturing
			29.3.2 Knit Fixation Process
		References
Part IV: Synthetic Chemical Fibers: Production and Properties
	30: Polyester
		30.1 Definition
		30.2 History
			30.2.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
			30.2.2 Polytrimethylene Terephthalate (PTT) and Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)
			30.2.3 Other Polyester
		30.3 Raw Materials
			30.3.1 PET
			30.3.2 PTT
			30.3.3 PBT
		30.4 Production of Polymers
			30.4.1 Discontinuous Process
			30.4.2 Continuous Process
		30.5 Fiber Modification
		30.6 Chemical Structure
		30.7 Properties of Polyester Fibers
			30.7.1 Cross Section Shapes and Types
			30.7.2 Mechanical Properties
			30.7.3 Special Types
				30.7.3.1 High Tenacity Filament Yarns for Technical Applications
				30.7.3.2 Low-Pill Staple Fibers for Use in Apparel Textiles
				30.7.3.3 High-shrink Fibers
				30.7.3.4 Easier to Dye (Deep Dyeing or Carrier-Free Dyeing) Types
				30.7.3.5 Types Dyeable with Cationic Dyes (Anionically Modified)
				30.7.3.6 Profile Fibers
				30.7.3.7 Bicomponent Fibers of the Type S/S (Side by Side)
				30.7.3.8 Bicomponent Fibers of the M/F Type (Matrix Fibrils)
				30.7.3.9 Microfibers
			30.7.4 Physical Properties
			30.7.5 Chemical Behavior
				30.7.5.1 Flammability
				30.7.5.2 Chemical Resistance
			30.7.6 Other Properties
			30.7.7 Dye Affinity
		30.8 Market and Trade Names
		30.9 Processing Properties and Areas of Application
		References
	31: Polyamide
		31.1 Definition
		31.2 History
			31.2.1 Polyamide 6.6 and Polyamide 6
			31.2.2 Development of Further Polyamide Types
		31.3 Chemical Constitution and Raw Materials
			31.3.1 Formation of Polyamides
			31.3.2 Polyamides from Diamines and Dicarboxylic Acids
				31.3.2.1 Polyamide 6.6
				31.3.2.2 Polyamide 4.6
				31.3.2.3 Polyamide 6.10
				31.3.2.4 Other
			31.3.3 Polyamides from ω-Aminocarboxylic Acids
			31.3.4 Polyamides from Lactams
				31.3.4.1 Polyamide 7
				31.3.4.2 Polyamide 12
				31.3.4.3 Melting Temperatures of Polyamides from Lactams
			31.3.5 Copolyamide
				31.3.5.1 PACM-12 (Qiana)
				31.3.5.2 Other Copolyamides
		31.4 Process for the Preparation of Polyamides
			31.4.1 Polycondensation of Diamines with Dicarboxylic Acids and Polycondensation of Aminocarboxylic Acids, Respectively
			31.4.2 Polymerization of Lactams
				31.4.2.1 Single-Stage Process in the VK Tube
				31.4.2.2 Two-Stage Process with VK Tube
				31.4.2.3 Discontinuous in Autoclave
				31.4.2.4 Continuous with Tube
				31.4.2.5 Other Types of Polymerization
		31.5 Process for the Production of Polyamide Fibers
			31.5.1 Granulate Drying
			31.5.2 Melt Spinning
			31.5.3 Drawing
			31.5.4 Production of Yarns from PA 6 and PA 6.6
				31.5.4.1 Textile Filament Yarns
				31.5.4.2 Technical Filament Yarns
			31.5.5 BCF Yarn (Bulk Continuous Filament)
			31.5.6 Staple Fibers
			31.5.7 Spun Dyed Fibers
			31.5.8 Microfibers
			31.5.9 Profile and Hollow Fibers
			31.5.10 Differential Dyeing Types
			31.5.11 Antistatic Polyamide Fibers
			31.5.12 Flame Retardant Fibers
			31.5.13 Light Stabilized Fibers
			31.5.14 Heat Stabilized Fibers
		31.6 Features
			31.6.1 Chemical Proof Reactions
			31.6.2 Physical and Textile Properties
			31.6.3 Thermal Properties
			31.6.4 Chemical Behavior
			31.6.5 Dye Affinity
			31.6.6 Other Properties
		31.7 Yarn Types
		31.8 Market and Manufacturers
		31.9 Processing Properties and Areas of Application
		References
	32: Aramid
		32.1 History
		32.2 Raw Materials, Formation of the Polymer
		32.3 Production
			32.3.1 Air Gap Wet Spinning Process
			32.3.2 Dry Spinning
			32.3.3 After-treatment
		32.4 Properties
		32.5 Products and Applications
		32.6 Market
		References
	33: Polyolefins
		33.1 Polyethylene (PE)
			33.1.1 History
			33.1.2 Structure
			33.1.3 Production
				33.1.3.1 Gel Spinning
				33.1.3.2 Solid State Extrusion Process
			33.1.4 Properties
			33.1.5 Areas of Application
			33.1.6 Market
		33.2 Polypropylene (PP)
			33.2.1 History
			33.2.2 Production of the Polymer, Chemical Structure
				33.2.2.1 Monomer
				33.2.2.2 Tacticity
				33.2.2.3 Polymerization with Ziegler-Natta and Metallocene Catalysts
				33.2.2.4 Polymerization Processes
				33.2.2.5 Suspension Polymerization
				33.2.2.6 Mass and Gas Phase Polymerization
			33.2.3 Molecular Weight, Crystal Structure and Morphology
				33.2.3.1 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution
				33.2.3.2 Crystal Structure and Morphology
			33.2.4 Production Method
				33.2.4.1 Filament Yarns
				33.2.4.2 BCF Yarns (Bulk Continuous Filament)
				33.2.4.3 Monofilaments
				33.2.4.4 Staple Fibers
				33.2.4.5 Nonwoven Production
				33.2.4.6 Split Film
			33.2.5 Properties
				33.2.5.1 Technological Values
				33.2.5.2 Chemical Behavior
			33.2.6 Modification of PP Fibers
				33.2.6.1 Dyeing Behavior
				33.2.6.2 Behavior Towards Environmental Influences
				33.2.6.3 Modification of PP Fibers with Regard to Their Mechanical Behavior
			33.2.7 Applications
				33.2.7.1 House and Home Textiles and Clothing
				33.2.7.2 Hygiene and Medicine
				33.2.7.3 Technical Textiles
			33.2.8 Market
			33.2.9 Recycling and Environmental Aspects
		33.3 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
			33.3.1 History
			33.3.2 Production
			33.3.3 Areas of Application
			33.3.4 Market and Trade Names
		33.4 Polyvinyl Dichloride (PVDC)
		33.5 Polyvinyl Difluoride (PVDF)
		33.6 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
		33.7 Polyacrylic (PAN)
		33.8 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
		References
	34: Polyacrylonitrile
		34.1 Definition
		34.2 Inventors, Development
		34.3 Raw Material, Formation of the Polymer
			34.3.1 Synthesis of Acrylonitrile
			34.3.2 Polymerization
				34.3.2.1 Emulsion Polymerization
				34.3.2.2 Suspension or Dispersion Polymerization
				34.3.2.3 Solution Polymerization
			34.3.3 Copolymerization
		34.4 Production Method
			34.4.1 Spinning Solution
			34.4.2 Spinning Process
				34.4.2.1 Dry Spinning
				34.4.2.2 Wet Spinning
				34.4.2.3 Gel Spinning
				34.4.2.4 Melt Spinning
		34.5 After-treatment
			34.5.1 Drawing
			34.5.2 Washing
			34.5.3 Finishing
			34.5.4 Drying
			34.5.5 Ripple
			34.5.6 Converting
			34.5.7 Dyeing
			34.5.8 Plant concepts
		34.6 Recovery of the Solvent
		34.7 Special Fiber Types
			34.7.1 Modacrylic Fibers
			34.7.2 Bicomponent Fibers
			34.7.3 Absorbant Fibers
			34.7.4 Asbestos Replacement
			34.7.5 Other Special Types
			34.7.6 Low Pilling Types
		34.8 Properties
			34.8.1 Fiber Types
			34.8.2 Physical properties
			34.8.3 Thermal Properties
			34.8.4 Microscopic Image
		34.9 Applications and Fields of Use
			34.9.1 Modacrylic Staple Fibers (MAC)
		34.10 Market and Trade Names
		References
	35: Polylactic Acid
		35.1 Definitions
		35.2 Inventors, History of Development
		35.3 Raw Materials and Synthesis
			35.3.1 Polycondensation
			35.3.2 Ring Opening Polymerization
		35.4 Chemical Composition
		35.5 Production Method
		35.6 Properties
			35.6.1 Polymer
			35.6.2 Physical and Chemical Properties
			35.6.3 Environmental Compatibility
		35.7 Areas of Application
		35.8 Market and Trade Names
		References
	36: Elastane
		36.1 History
		36.2 Starting Materials, Formation of the Polymer
			36.2.1 Polymer Formation
			36.2.2 Polymer Formation in 2 Steps
			36.2.3 Internal Structure of Elastomers
		36.3 Production
			36.3.1 Dry Spinning
			36.3.2 Wet Spinning
			36.3.3 Reactive Spinning Process
			36.3.4 Melt Spinning
		36.4 Features
		36.5 Products and Applications
		36.6 Market
		References
	37: High-performance Fibers
		37.1 Definition
		37.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene Fibers (PTFE)
			37.2.1 Production Method
		37.3 Polyimide Fibers (PI)
		37.4 Polyetherketone Fibers (PEK, PEEK)
			37.4.1 History
			37.4.2 Structure
			37.4.3 Production
			37.4.4 Features
			37.4.5 Applications and Manufacturers
		37.5 Polysulfone Fibers (PSU, PES)
		37.6 Polyphenylene Sulfide Fibers (PPS)
		37.7 Melamine Resin Fibers (MF)
		37.8 Novoloid Fibers
		37.9 Polyazole Fibers (PBO)
		37.10 Polybenzimidazole Fibers (PBI)
		37.11 Polyoxadiazole Fibers (POD)
		37.12 Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP)
		37.13 Properties
		37.14 Manufacturers
		References
	38: Carbon Fibers
		38.1 Development and History
		38.2 Raw Materials
		38.3 Fiber and Yarn Production
			38.3.1 Base PAN
			38.3.2 Base Pitch
			38.3.3 Other Precursors
				38.3.3.1 Polyolefins
				38.3.3.2 Cellulose
				38.3.3.3 Lignin
				38.3.3.4 Other Materials
		38.4 Inner Structure
		38.5 Features
		38.6 Further Processing
		38.7 Areas of Application
		38.8 Market and Manufacturers
		References
	39: Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene
		39.1 Definition and Types
		39.2 History
		39.3 Structure
		39.4 Production
			39.4.1 Arc Process
			39.4.2 Laser Ablation Process
			39.4.3 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) Process
		39.5 Properties
		39.6 Functionalization
		39.7 Production of Yarns from Carbon Nanotubes
		39.8 Production of Composite Materials with Nanotubes
		39.9 Areas of Application
		39.10 Health Effects
		39.11 Market and Manufacturers
		39.12 Graphene
		References
	40: Optical Fibers
		40.1 History
		40.2 Principle
		40.3 Manufacture of Optical Fibers
		40.4 Types of Polymer Optical Fibers
			40.4.1 Multi-core Fibers
			40.4.2 Monomode Fibers
			40.4.3 Microstructured Fibers
			40.4.4 Lateral Light Emitting Fibers
		40.5 Production of Polymer Optical Fibers
			40.5.1 Discontinuous Processes
			40.5.2 Continuous Processes
		40.6 Properties
		40.7 Products and Applications
		40.8 Market
		References
Part V: Cellulosic Chemical Fibers: Production and Properties
	41: Cellulosic Man-Made Fibers
		41.1 Basics
			41.1.1 History
			41.1.2 Raw Materials, Pulp Production
		41.2 Regenerated Fibers
			41.2.1 Viscose Process
				41.2.1.1 Alkalization
				41.2.1.2 Xanthogenation
				41.2.1.3 Spinning of Viscose into Fibers
				41.2.1.4 Degree of Polymerization and Chemical Consumption
				41.2.1.5 Ancillary Facilities
				41.2.1.6 Tape Formation and Drawing
				41.2.1.7 After-Treatment of the Filaments
				41.2.1.8 Viscose Fiber Types
					41.2.1.8.1 High Wet Strength Viscose Staple Fibers
					41.2.1.8.2 Modal
					41.2.1.8.3 Polynosic Fibers
					41.2.1.8.4 Technical Filament Yarns
					41.2.1.8.5 Highly Crimped Viscose Staple Fibers
					41.2.1.8.6 Hollow Fibers
					41.2.1.8.7 Flame Retardant Fibers
					41.2.1.8.8 Water Absorbent Fibers
				41.2.1.9 Chemical Structure, Fine Structure
				41.2.1.10 Properties
				41.2.1.11 Processing and Finishing
				41.2.1.12 Carbamate Process
			41.2.2 Modified Viscose Fibers
			41.2.3 Cupro Process (Cuoxam Process)
		41.3 Lyocell
			41.3.1 Principle
			41.3.2 Solvent
			41.3.3 NMMO Process
			41.3.4 Preparation of a Homogeneous Solution of Pulp, NMMO and Water
			41.3.5 Fiber Production
			41.3.6 Possibilities for Modifying the Procedure
			41.3.7 SeaCell
			41.3.8 Structure and Fine Structure of Lyocell Fibers
			41.3.9 Properties
			41.3.10 Processing
			41.3.11 Dyeing, Finishing
			41.3.12 Trade Names, Production, Areas of Application
			41.3.13 Areas of Application
			41.3.14 Environmental Aspects
			41.3.15 Comparison of Lyocell and Viscose Processes
		41.4 Other Direct Solution Methods
			41.4.1 Biocelsol Process
			41.4.2 Other
		41.5 Production
			41.5.1 Manufacturers
			41.5.2 Areas of Application
			41.5.3 Cost Trends
		41.6 Derivative Fibers
			41.6.1 Acetate Fibers
				41.6.1.1 History
				41.6.1.2 Chemical Basics
				41.6.1.3 Manufacture of Raw Materials
				41.6.1.4 Fiber Production
				41.6.1.5 Properties and Areas of Application
				41.6.1.6 Manufacturers and Market
			41.6.2 Nitrocellulose
		41.7 Nanocellulose
		References
Part VI: Biopolymers
	42: Biopolymers
		42.1 Basics
		42.2 Protein Fibers
			42.2.1 Casein and Milk Fibers
			42.2.2 Soy Fibers
			42.2.3 Corn Fiber
			42.2.4 Peanut Fiber
			42.2.5 Collagen Fibers
			42.2.6 Chitin Fibers
			42.2.7 Chitosan Fibers
			42.2.8 Spider Silk
			42.2.9 Fish Protein
			42.2.10 Feathers
		42.3 Polysaccharide Fibers
			42.3.1 Alginate
			42.3.2 Starch Fibers
			42.3.3 Bamboo
		42.4 Other Biopolymers
			42.4.1 Rubber Threads
			42.4.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol Fibers (PVA)
			42.4.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoate Fibers (PHA, PHB)
			42.4.4 Polyglycolic Acid Fibers (PGA)
			42.4.5 Polycaprolactone Fibers (PCL)
			42.4.6 Other Polymers
		42.5 Interim Summary
		42.6 BioPET and BioPA Fibers
		42.7 Degradability
		42.8 Market and Manufacturers
		References
Part VII: Inorganic Fibers
	43: Glass Fibers
		43.1 Development and History
		43.2 Raw Materials
		43.3 Chemical Composition and Structure
		43.4 Glass Production
			43.4.1 Unit Melter
			43.4.2 Electric Ovens
			43.4.3 Intermediates
		43.5 Fiber and Yarn Production
			43.5.1 Nozzle Drawing Method for Filaments
			43.5.2 Drum Drawing Process for Staple Fibers
			43.5.3 Glass Wool
		43.6 Fiber Optic Types
		43.7 Properties
		43.8 Further Processing
		43.9 Products
		43.10 Market and Manufacturers
		References
	44: Basalt Fibers
		44.1 Basalt Occurrence
		44.2 Chemical Composition and Structure
		44.3 Fiber and Yarn Production
		44.4 Fiber Types
		44.5 Properties
		44.6 Further Processing
		44.7 Products
		44.8 Market and Manufacturers
		References
	45: Ceramic Fibers
		45.1 Development and History
		45.2 Raw Materials and Structure
			45.2.1 Oxide Ceramics
			45.2.2 Non-oxide Ceramics
		45.3 Fiber and Yarn Production
			45.3.1 Melt Spinning of Staple Fibers
			45.3.2 Melt Spinning of Filaments
			45.3.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition
			45.3.4 Thermal Conversion by Pyrolysis of Precursor-Impregnated Fibers
			45.3.5 Sol-Gel Process
			45.3.6 Other Processes
		45.4 Properties
		45.5 Further Processing
		45.6 Products
		45.7 Market and Manufacturers
		References
Part VIII: Metal Fibers
	46: Metal Fibers
		46.1 Basics
		46.2 Development and History
		46.3 Metal Extraction
			46.3.1 Occurrence and Extraction of Metals
			46.3.2 Thermal Annealing Process
			46.3.3 Material Numbers According to the German Standard DIN 17007
		46.4 Metal Fiber Types
			46.4.1 Pure Metals
			46.4.2 Alloys
			46.4.3 Semi-metals
			46.4.4 Metallized Fibers
		46.5 Production
			46.5.1 Mechanical Manufacturing Process
			46.5.2 Thermal Manufacturing Processes
			46.5.3 Special Forms
			46.5.4 Metal Alloys with Shape Memory Effect
		46.6 Processing of Metal Fibers
			46.6.1 Yarn Production
			46.6.2 Fabric
			46.6.3 Other Sheet Materials of Metal Fibers
			46.6.4 Composite Material
		46.7 Properties
		46.8 Applications
		46.9 Market and Manufacturers
		References
Part IX: Test Methods
	47: Test Methods
		47.1 Determination of the Fiber Content
			47.1.1 Microscope
			47.1.2 Density Method
			47.1.3 Chemical Determination
			47.1.4 Dyeing Method
			47.1.5 Thermal Methods
			47.1.6 Chromatographic Methods
		47.2 Mechanical Properties
			47.2.1 Basics
			47.2.2 Strength, Elongation, Modulus of Elasticity
			47.2.3 Loop Strength
			47.2.4 Mechanical Utility Value
			47.2.5 Optical Methods for Determining the Internal Structure
				47.2.5.1 Birefringence
				47.2.5.2 Wide Angle X-Ray Diffraction (WAXD)
				47.2.5.3 SAXS
				47.2.5.4 FTIR
				47.2.5.5 Raman Spectroscopy
		47.3 Geometric Properties
			47.3.1 Fiber Fineness
			47.3.2 Fiber Length
			47.3.3 Fiber Crimp
		47.4 Moisture and Water Absorption
			47.4.1 Moisture Absorption
			47.4.2 Water Absorption and Water Retention Capacity
			47.4.3 Wettability
			47.4.4 Water Retention Capacity
		47.5 Standards
		References
Part X: Properties of Natural and Chemical Fibers
	48: Properties
		48.1 Fineness
		48.2 Strength and Modulus of Elasticity
		48.3 Degree of Polymerization and Length of the Polymers
		48.4 Composition
		48.5 Density
		48.6 Flammability and Use Temperature
		48.7 Resistance to Light and Weather
		48.8 Resistance to Acids and Alkalis
		48.9 Resistance to Microorganisms
		48.10 General Overview
		References
Part XI: Producers and Trade Names
	49: Producers and Trade Names
		49.1 Producers
		49.2 Trade names
Part XII: Outlook and Trends
	50: Outlook and Trends
		50.1 Natural Fibers
			50.1.1 Cotton
			50.1.2 Bast and Hard Fibers
			50.1.3 Wool
			50.1.4 Other Natural Fibers
		50.2 Man-Made Fibers
			50.2.1 Synthetic Fibers
			50.2.2 Cellulosic Fibers
		50.3 Inorganic and Carbon Fibers
		50.4 The World in 2050
		References
Index