Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Global Zero Tolerance Policy and Diverse Responses from African and Asian Local Communities

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Editors and Contributors
	About the Editors
	Contributors
1 Introduction
	1.1 WHO Definition and Classification
	1.2 Terminology
	1.3 The Abolition Movement and Politics and Economics in Western Societies
	1.4 Enactment of Prohibition Laws and Local Reactions
	1.5 Zero Tolerance and the UN Ban on “Medicalization”
	1.6 Chapter Contents
	References
2 Global Discourse and the Patriarchal Norms of FGM: Beyond the Zero Tolerance Policy
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 FGM and Cultural Relativism
		2.1.2 Local Diversity in Africa
		2.1.3 The Aim of This Chapter
	2.2 Zero Tolerance Policy in the International Community
		2.2.1 Efforts of the International Community
		2.2.2 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
		2.2.3 SDGs
		2.2.4 Changes in Africa
	2.3 Zero Tolerance Policy in Kenya and FGM in the Somali Community
		2.3.1 Zero Tolerance Policy in Kenya
		2.3.2 FGM in the Somali Community
	2.4 Ways of Abolishing FGM—Beyond the Zero Tolerance Approach
		2.4.1 The Role of Religious Leaders
		2.4.2 Positive Deviance Approach
	2.5 Conclusion
	References
3 What Has Become of FGC After Strict Eradication Campaigns?: Female Genital Cutting and Its Eradication Activities Among the Yellow Bull in Ethiopia
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 FGC in Ethiopia
		3.2.1 General View of FGC in Ethiopia
		3.2.2 FGC in Ethiopia Based on DHS
		3.2.3 FGC in Amhara Region
		3.2.4 FGC in Harari Region
		3.2.5 FGC in Somali Region
		3.2.6 Oromia Region
		3.2.7 FGC in Transition
	3.3 Forced Abolition and Resistance of Women: FGC Among the Yellow Bull
		3.3.1 Historical Background of the Yellow Bull
		3.3.2 FGC of the Yellow Bull
		3.3.3 Patriarchy and the Politics of Interpretation: Ritual Meanings of FGC Among the Yellow Bull
		3.3.4 Interpretation of FGC and Resistance of Women
	3.4 Abolition of FGC in the Yellow Bull
		3.4.1 FGM Abolition Campaign Among the Yellow Bull
		3.4.2 Failure of Abolition
		3.4.3 Stakeholders and Politics of FGC
	3.5 Conclusion
	References
4 Ending Female Genital Mutilation: Progress and Challenges in the Somali Region, Ethiopia
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Objectives and Methods
		4.2.1 Objectives
		4.2.2 Methods and Sources of Data
		4.2.3 Study Sites and People
	4.3 Analysis of Findings
		4.3.1 Interventions: Agents and Strategies
		4.3.2 Ending Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Progress and Challenges
	4.4 General Discussion
	4.5 Conclusion
	References
5 Transformation and Continuation: FGC Among the Gusii People in Western Kenya
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Changes of FC/FGC in KDHS
	5.3 FGC as a Tradition Among the Gusii People
		5.3.1 As a Rite of Passage
		5.3.2 Reasons for the Practice
	5.4 Medicalization and Changes of FGC from 1980s Until 2000
		5.4.1 Medicalization Since the 1980s
		5.4.2 The Places of the Operation
		5.4.3 People’s Reactions
	5.5 How Have People’s Attitudes Changed?
		5.5.1 Anti-FGM Activities
		5.5.2 What About the Reaction to Anti-FGM Activities
		5.5.3 No More FGC?
	5.6 Conclusion
	References
6 An Ethnography of Diversity and Flexibility Around Female Circumcision and Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Case of a Local Community Response to the Abolition Movement in Kenya
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 The Undergrounding of FGM/C
	6.3 Local Intermediate Option, “Kati-Kati”
	6.4 Diversification of Operation Styles and People’s Identity
	6.5 Controversial Consequences of the Powerful and Inflexible Zero Tolerance Policy
	6.6 Conclusion
	References
7 Research Note on a Grassroots Movement to Eradicate Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting Among Kenyan Maasai
	7.1 FGM/C Among Maasai Girls
	7.2 CBO Activities on Anti-FGM/C
	7.3 Reactions of the Girl, Her Mother, and a Neighbor
	References
8 Female Genital Cutting in Asia: The Case of Malaysia
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Background
	8.3 Prevalence
	8.4 Malaysia
		8.4.1 History of Malay and Islam in Malaysia
		8.4.2 FGC in Malaysia
	8.5 Conclusion
	References
9 Female Genital Cutting and the “Medical Gaze” in Southeast Asia
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Theoretical Background
	9.3 FGC in Southeast Asia
	9.4 FGC Through the Medical Gaze
	9.5 Conclusion
	References
10 Healthcare Provision for Refugees and Immigrant Women with FGM Living in Australia
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Burden of Complication of FGM in Australia
	10.3 Knowledge and Training of Health Care Workers
		10.3.1 Doctors
		10.3.2 Midwives
		10.3.3 Women with FGM as Healthcare Recipients
	10.4 Men and FGM
	10.5 Policy Responses in Australia
	10.6 Conclusion
	References
11 Autonomy, Bodily Integrity and Male Genital Cutting
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 From Reproductive Health to Sexual Rights
	11.3 Medically Unnecessary Genital Cutting
		11.3.1 Terminology
		11.3.2 Circumcision
		11.3.3 Genital Cutting for “Health Benefits”
		11.3.4 A New Trend
	11.4 A Conflict of Issues
	11.5 Conclusion: Leave No One Behind
	Appendix: Declaration of Sexual Rights
	References
12 Notes on the History of Feminist Activism in Sudan: Editors’ Interview with Prof. Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf
	12.1 African Academics Are at the Forefront of Illuminating the Cultural Underpinnings of This Practice
	12.2 Western Feminist Representations and Negative Images of Africa and Africans
	12.3 Feminist Movement in Sudan
	12.4 International Campaigns Should Collaborate with Community Activists
	References
Index