Fats and Oils Handbook

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
ISBN 0935315829......Page 3
Preface......Page 4
Preface to the English Edition......Page 6
Table of Contents (with page links)......Page 7
1. The Importance of Fats......Page 9
1.1 A History of the Production of Oils and Fats......Page 10
1.2 Fat in Food and Food Ingredients......Page 12
1.3 The Economic Importance of Oils and Fats......Page 13
1.3.1 The Economic Importance of Oils and Fats as Well as of Fat Products in Europe and Germany......Page 30
1.3.2 Oil Politics in the European Community......Page 35
1.4 Fat in Nutrition......Page 37
1.5.1 Product-Related Legislation......Page 44
1.5.2 Production-Related Legislation......Page 45
1.6 Fats as Industrial Raw Materials......Page 46
1.7 Fats and Oils as a Source of Energy......Page 48
1.8.1 New Plants through Plant Breeding or by Genetic Modification......Page 51
1.9.1 Carbohydrates......Page 52
1.9.5 Sucrose Polyesters (SPE)......Page 53
References......Page 55
2. Composition, Structure, Physical Data, and Chemical Reactions of Fats and Oils, Their Derivatives, and Their Associates......Page 61
2.1.1 Glycerol......Page 63
2.1.2.1 Structure and Nomenclature......Page 65
2.1.2.3 Unsaturated Unbranched Fatty Acids......Page 66
2.1.2.4 Other Fatty Acids......Page 69
2.2 The Structure of Triglycerides......Page 74
2.3 Physical Characteristics......Page 78
2.3.1 Melting Point and Crystal Modification......Page 79
2.3.1.1 Melting Points of Mono- and Diglycerides......Page 85
2.3.2.2 Heat of Fusion and Melting Dilatation......Page 87
2.3.2.3 Specific Density and Thermal Expansion......Page 89
2.3.2.4 Vapor Pressure and Heat of Evaporation......Page 94
2.3.2.5 Viscosity......Page 95
2.3.2.6.1 Solubility of Oils and Fats in Solvents......Page 97
2.3.2.6.2 Solubility of Gases in Oils and Fats......Page 100
2.3.2.6.3 Solubility of Water in Fats and Oils and Vice Versa......Page 101
2.3.2.7 Smoke Point, Flash Point, and Fire Point......Page 103
2.3.2.8 Refractive Index......Page 104
2.4 Chemical Reactions......Page 106
2.4.2 Polymerization......Page 107
2.4.3 Autoxidation......Page 108
2.4.5 Saponification......Page 110
2.5.1 Lecithins......Page 111
2.5.2 Hydrocarbons......Page 113
2.5.3 Sterols......Page 114
2.5.4 Lipochromes......Page 115
2.5.5.1 Vitamin A......Page 116
2.5.5.3 Vitamin E (Tocopherol)......Page 117
2.5.6 Special Compounds of Single Seeds and Oils......Page 118
2.5.6.3 Glucosinolates of Rape......Page 120
References......Page 122
3. Animal Fats and Oils......Page 129
3.1 Milk Fats......Page 130
3.1.1 Fat of Cow's Milk (Milk Fat, Butter Fat, Butter Oil)......Page 131
3.1.2 Milk Fat Production......Page 134
3.2 Rendered Fats......Page 135
3.2.1 Fat Production......Page 139
3.2.1.2 Batch and Semicontinuous Fat Production......Page 140
3.2.1.3 Continuous Processes......Page 148
3.2.1.4 Production of Bone Oil......Page 150
3.2.1.5 Solvent Extraction......Page 151
3.2.2 Lard......Page 156
3.2.3 Beef Tallow......Page 159
3.2.4 Mutton Tallow......Page 161
3.3 Marine Oils......Page 164
3.3.1 Whale Oil......Page 166
3.3.1.1 Whale Oil Production......Page 167
3.3.2 Fish Oil......Page 168
3.3.2.1 Fish Oil Production......Page 170
3.3.2.2 Breaking Cells Up with Voltage Pulses......Page 175
3.3.3 Fish Liver Oil......Page 178
References......Page 180
4. Vegetable Fats and Oils......Page 182
4.1 Oil/Fat-Containing Plants......Page 184
4.1.1 The Composition of Oil Fruit and Oilseeds......Page 186
4.1.2 The Yield of Oil Fruit......Page 189
4.1.3 Harvest and Harvesting Losses......Page 193
4.1.4 Drying of Oilseeds......Page 195
4.1.5 Seed Storage......Page 200
4.1.6 Transport of Oilseeds......Page 204
4.1.7 Storage and Transport of Oils......Page 209
4.1.8 Usage of the Nonfat Part of Seeds......Page 211
4.2.1.1 Botany and History of the Oil Palm......Page 214
4.2.1.2 Composition and Properties of Palm Oil......Page 216
4.2.1.3 Economic Importance of Palm Oil......Page 217
4.2.1.5 Fact File of Palm Oil......Page 219
4.2.2.1 Botany and History of Olives......Page 220
4.2.2.2 Composition and Properties of Olives......Page 222
4.2.2.3 Economic Importance of Olive Oil......Page 223
4.2.2.4 Harvesting Olives and Oil Extraction......Page 224
4.2.3.1 Botany, Composition, and Properties of Avocado Oil......Page 225
4.3 Seed Oils......Page 229
4.3.1.2 Economic Importance of Soybeans......Page 231
4.3.1.3 Composition and Properties of Soybeans and Their Oil......Page 233
4.3.1.4 Soybean Harvest, Storage, and Oil Extraction......Page 234
4.3.1.5 Fact File of Soybean Oil......Page 235
4.3.2.1 Botany and History of Cotton......Page 237
4.3.2.2 Economic Importance of Cotton......Page 238
4.3.2.3 Composition and Properties of Cottonseed and its Oil......Page 240
4.3.2.4 Harvest, Storage, and Oil Extraction of Cottonseed......Page 242
4.3.2.5 Fact File of Cottonseed Oil......Page 244
4.3.3.2 Economic Importance of Sunflower......Page 245
4.3.3.3 Composition and Properties of Sunflower Seeds and Their Oil......Page 247
4.3.3.4 Harvest and Storage of Sunflower Seed......Page 249
4.3.4.1 Botany and History of Peanuts......Page 250
4.3.4.2 Economic Importance of Peanuts......Page 251
4.3.4.3 Composition and Properties of Peanuts and Their Oil......Page 252
4.3.4.4 Harvest and Storage of Peanuts......Page 256
4.3.4.5 Fact File of Peanuts......Page 258
4.3.5.1 Botany and History of Rape......Page 259
4.3.5.2 Economic Importance of Rape......Page 260
4.3.5.3 Composition and Properties of Rapeseed and its Oil......Page 262
4.3.5.4 Harvest and Storage of Rapeseed......Page 265
4.3.5.5 Fact File of Rapeseed Oil......Page 266
4.3.6.2 Economic Importance of Coconuts......Page 268
4.3.6.3 Composition and Properties of Coconuts, Copra, and Coconut Oil......Page 269
4.3.6.4 Harvest and Storage of Coconuts......Page 272
4.3.6.5 Fact File of Coconut Oil......Page 273
4.3.7.1 Botany and History of Sesame......Page 274
4.3.7.2 Economic Importance of Sesame......Page 275
4.3.7.3 Composition and Properties of Sesame Seed and its Oil......Page 277
4.3.7.4 Harvest and Storage of Sesame Seed......Page 278
4.3.7.5 Fact File of Sesame Oil......Page 280
4.3.8.3 Composition and Properties of Palm Kernels and Their Oil......Page 281
4.3.8.4 Harvest and Storage of the Palm Nuts and Extraction of the Oil......Page 282
4.3.9.1 Botany and History of Linseed......Page 284
4.3.9.2 Economic Importance of Linseed......Page 286
4.3.9.3 Composition and Properties of Linseed and its Oil......Page 287
4.3.9.4 Harvest and Storage of Linseed and Extraction of the Oil......Page 288
4.3.10.1 Botany and History of Safflower......Page 290
4.3.10.3 Composition and Properties of Safflower Seed and its Oil......Page 291
4.3.10.5 Fact File of Safflower Seed Oil......Page 293
4.3.11.2 Economic Importance of Cocoa......Page 295
4.3.11.4 Harvest and Storage, Fermentation of Cocoa and Cocoa Butter Production......Page 296
4.3.12 Corn Oil......Page 299
4.3.14.1 Botany and History of the Babassu Palm......Page 302
4.3.14.2 Economic Importance of Babassu......Page 304
4.3.14.3 Composition and Properties of Babassu Nuts, Their Oil, and Extraction of the Oil......Page 306
4.3.15 Grape Seed Oil......Page 308
4.3.16 Niger Seed Oil......Page 309
4.3.17 Borneo Tallow......Page 311
4.3.19 Rice Bran Oil......Page 313
4.3.20 Other Edible Oils......Page 317
4.4.1 Castor Oil......Page 319
4.4.2 Tung Oil......Page 323
4.5 Other Oil Sources......Page 325
4.5.2 Bacteria Fats......Page 329
4.5.3 Fats from Algae......Page 331
References......Page 335
5. The Extraction of Vegetable Oils......Page 353
5.1.1 The Production of Palm Oil......Page 354
5.1.1.2 Separation of the Nuts and the Pulp from the Stalk......Page 356
5.1.1.4 Waste Disposal and Recycling......Page 357
5.1.2 Olive Oil Production......Page 358
5.1.2.2.1 Stone Mills......Page 359
5.1.2.3 Mixing......Page 360
5.1.2.4.2 Oil Extraction with Centrifuges......Page 361
5.1.2.4.3 Percolation Extraction......Page 364
5.1.2.5.3 Comparison of Consumption......Page 367
5.2 Oilseed Extraction......Page 368
5.2.1 Seed Pretreatment......Page 369
5.2.1.1.1 Iron Separators......Page 371
5.2.1.1.2 Separation of Nonmetallic Impurities......Page 372
5.2.1.2 Dehulling (Decorticating)......Page 374
5.2.1.2.3 Dehulling of Soybeans......Page 376
5.2.1.2.4 Delinting and Decorticating of Cottonseed......Page 377
5.2.1.2.7 Dehulling of Rapeseed......Page 379
5.2.1.2.9 Cracking of Palm Nuts......Page 380
5.2.1.3.1 Coarse Reduction......Page 381
5.2.1.3.2 Fine Reduction and Flaking......Page 382
5.2.1.3.3 Extrusion (Expanders)......Page 385
5.2.1.3.4 The ALCON Process......Page 386
5.2.1.4.2 Drum Conditioners......Page 387
5.2.2 Oil Extraction by Expelling......Page 388
5.2.2.1.1 Water Content......Page 389
5.2.2.1.2 Capacity of the Press and Power Applied......Page 390
5.2.2.2 Screw Presses......Page 391
5.2.2.3 Treatment of the Extracted Oil......Page 393
5.2.2.4 Treatment of the Cake......Page 394
5.2.3 Solvent Extraction......Page 397
5.2.3.1 The Theory of Extraction......Page 398
5.2.3.2.1 Selecting the Extraction Solvent......Page 403
5.2.3.2.3 Handling the Extraction Solvent......Page 405
5.2.3.3.1 The Percolation Process......Page 407
5.2.3.3.3 The Extraction Temperature......Page 408
5.2.3.3.4 The Extraction Time......Page 409
5.2.3.3.5 The Amount of Solvent......Page 410
5.2.3.3.7 The Influence of Particle Size and Shape......Page 411
5.2.3.3.8 Heat Treatment......Page 413
5.2.3.4.1 Batch Extractors......Page 414
5.2.3.4.3 Continuous Percolation Extractors......Page 415
5.2.3.4.4 Continuous Immersion Extractors......Page 422
5.2.3.4.5 Combined Extraction Plants......Page 425
5.2.4 Processing the Miscella, the Meal and the Vapors......Page 426
5.2.4.1.2 Oil Recovery from the Miscella......Page 428
5.2.4.2 Solvent Recovery from the Meal......Page 432
5.2.4.3 Vapor Treatment......Page 435
5.2.5.1 Degumming......Page 436
5.2.5.3 The Degumming Process......Page 437
5.2.6 New Processes......Page 438
5.2.6.1 High Pressure CO_2 Extraction......Page 440
5.2.6.1.1 The Theory of Supercritical Liquid Extraction......Page 441
5.2.6.1.2 Process and Plants for High Pressure Extraction......Page 442
5.2.6.1.3 Examples for Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Fats......Page 443
5.2.6.3 Two-Phase Extraction with Polar and Nonpolar Solvents......Page 445
5.2.7 Energy Consumption......Page 446
5.2.8 Turnkey Factory......Page 447
References......Page 448
6. Modification of Fats and Oils......Page 454
6.1 Application and Combination of Modification Processes......Page 455
6.1.1 Summary and Process Overview......Page 456
6.2 Fractionation......Page 457
6.2.1.1 Phase Diagrams for the Solid and Liquid State......Page 461
6.2.1.2 The Fractionation Tree......Page 464
6.2.1.3 Influencing Crystallization......Page 466
6.2.1.4 Crystallization......Page 468
6.2.1.4.1 Nucleation......Page 469
6.2.1.4.2 Crystal Growth......Page 473
6.2.2 Fractionation Techniques......Page 474
6.2.2.1.2 The Process......Page 475
6.2.2.1.3 Cooling Processes......Page 476
6.2.2.1.4 Plants for Dry Fractionation......Page 477
6.2.2.2.1 The Principle of Lanza Fractionation......Page 479
6.2.2.2.2 The Process......Page 480
6.2.2.2.3 Plants for Lanza Fractionation......Page 481
6.2.2.3.2 The Wet Fractionation Process......Page 483
6.2.2.4 Other Processes......Page 484
6.2.2.5 Crystallization......Page 486
6.2.2.6.1 Membrane Filter Presses......Page 487
6.2.2.6.2 Vacuum Belt Filters......Page 489
6.2.2.6.3 Rotary Drum Filters......Page 492
6.2.2.6.4 Comparison of Filtration Techniques......Page 495
6.2.2.7 Comparison of the Fractionation Techniques......Page 496
6.2.3 The Properties of Fractionated Oils and Fats......Page 499
6.2.3.1 Lard......Page 500
6.2.3.2 Beef Tallow......Page 501
6.2.3.3 Butter Fat......Page 503
6.2.3.4 Palm Oil......Page 505
6.2.3.5 Cocoa Butter Replacers (Cocoa Butter Equivalents)......Page 509
6.3.1 Separation by Cooling and Filtration......Page 516
6.3.1.2 Continuous Winterization Plant......Page 517
6.3.2 Miscella Winterization......Page 518
6.3.3 Membrane Dewaxing......Page 519
6.3.3.2 Device for Membrane Dewaxing......Page 520
6.3.3.3 The Processing......Page 521
6.4 Interesterification......Page 524
6.4.1.2 Effects of Interesterification......Page 525
6.4.1.3 The Mechanism of Interesterification......Page 527
6.4.1.4 Directed Interesterification......Page 530
6.4.2 The Catalysts......Page 531
6.4.3 Choice and Preparation of Raw Materials......Page 533
6.4.3.1 Lost Catalyst with Insufficiently Pretreated Oils......Page 534
6.4.4.1 Random Interesterification......Page 536
6.4.4.2 Directed Interesterification......Page 538
6.4.5.1 Plants for Randomization......Page 539
6.4.5.2 Plants for Continuous Interesterification......Page 540
6.4.6 Properties of Interesterified Fats and Oils......Page 541
6.4.6.1 Directed Interesterification......Page 544
6.5 Hardening......Page 553
6.5.1 History of Hardening......Page 554
6.5.2.1 Reaction Mechanism......Page 555
6.5.2.2 Reaction Kinetics......Page 558
6.5.3 The Catalyst......Page 561
6.5.3.1.1 Support-Free Catalysts (Wet Reduction)......Page 563
6.5.3.1.2 Nickel Carrier Catalysts (Dry Reduction)......Page 565
6.5.3.1.3 Other Catalysts......Page 567
6.5.3.2 Recycling of Catalyst......Page 570
6.5.3.3 Examples of Catalysts in the Marketplace......Page 571
6.5.4 Hydrogen Raising......Page 572
6.5.4.1 Steam Iron Hydrogen......Page 574
6.5.4.2 Electrolytic Hydrogen......Page 575
6.5.4.3 Steam Reforming Process (Hydrocarbon Refining)......Page 577
6.5.5 Influence of Processing Conditions......Page 579
6.5.5.1 Temperature......Page 581
6.5.5.2 Hydrogen Pressure and Solubility......Page 584
6.5.5.3 Mass Transfer......Page 587
6.5.5.4 Kind, Condition, and Concentration of Catalyst......Page 590
6.5.5.5 The Substrate......Page 594
6.5.6 Hardening Techniques......Page 597
6.5.6.1 Preparation of Fats and Oils (Purification)......Page 598
6.5.6.2 The Hardening Process......Page 599
6.5.6.4 Other Processes (Methods)......Page 605
6.5.7.1 Physical Properties and Properties of Use......Page 606
6.5.7.2 Nutritional Characteristics......Page 608
References......Page 612
7. Oil Purification......Page 621
7.1 Economic Importance of Refining......Page 622
7.2 Neutralization......Page 623
7.2.2.1 Re-Esterification with Glycerol......Page 624
7.2.2.2 Neutralization with Alkali......Page 625
7.2.2.2.1 Discontinuous Neutralization......Page 629
7.2.2.2.3 Continuous Neutralization......Page 630
7.2.2.2.4 The Integration of Degumming......Page 633
7.2.3 Miscella Refining......Page 634
7.2.4 Other Processes......Page 635
7.2.5 Soap Splitting......Page 636
7.2.6.1 The Theory of Centrifugal Separation......Page 637
7.2.6.2 Separators......Page 643
7.2.6.3 Decanters......Page 644
7.3 Bleaching......Page 646
7.3.1 The Theory of Bleaching......Page 648
7.3.1.2 The Influence of the Amount of Bleaching Earth......Page 650
7.3.1.3 The Influence of Temperature......Page 651
7.3.2.1 Natural Bleaching Earth......Page 652
7.3.2.2 Activated Bleaching Earth......Page 653
7.3.2.6 Comparing the Bleaching Agents......Page 655
7.3.3 The Bleaching Process and Bleaching Plants......Page 656
7.3.3.1 Plants for Discontinuous Bleaching......Page 657
7.3.3.2 Plants for Semicontinuous Bleaching......Page 658
7.3.3.3 Plants for Continuous Bleaching......Page 659
7.3.4 Pretreatment of the Oils to Be Bleached......Page 660
7.3.5 The Filtration of the Bleaching Agent......Page 661
7.3.5.1 Plate Filter Presses......Page 663
7.3.5.2 Continuous Filters......Page 665
7.3.5.2.1 Candle Filters......Page 666
7.3.5.2.3 Centrifugal Discharge Filter......Page 669
7.3.6.1 Water Treatment......Page 672
7.3.6.3 Other Processes......Page 673
7.3.7 Heat Bleaching......Page 674
7.4 Deodorization......Page 675
7.4.1 The History of Deodorization......Page 677
7.4.2 The Theory of Deodorization......Page 678
7.4.3 The Process Conditions......Page 681
7.4.3.2 Deodorization Temperature......Page 682
7.4.4 Deodorization Plants......Page 683
7.4.4.1 Discontinuous Deodorization......Page 684
7.4.4.2 Semicontinuous Deodorization......Page 685
7.4.4.3 Continuous Deodorization......Page 688
7.4.4.4 Thin-Film Deodorization......Page 693
7.4.5.1.3 Direct Heating......Page 698
7.4.5.2 Vacuum Generation......Page 699
7.4.5.3 Vapor Condensation......Page 701
7.4.6.2 Semicontinuous Processing......Page 702
7.5.1 The Theory of Physical Refining......Page 703
7.5.2 Requirements on Oils to Be Physically Refined......Page 704
7.5.4 Plants for Physical Refining......Page 705
7.5.4.2 Condensation of Fatty Acids......Page 707
7.5.6 Comparison of Chemical and Physical Refining......Page 708
7.6 Energy Consumption and Investment......Page 710
7.7 The Importance of Refining for the Removal of Environmental Contaminants......Page 712
7.7.1 Aflatoxins......Page 714
7.7.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)......Page 715
7.7.3 Chlorinated Polycyclic Hydrocarbons and Pesticides......Page 717
7.7.4 Trace Metals......Page 718
References......Page 720
8.1.1 The History of Butter......Page 727
8.1.3 Legislation Concerning Butter......Page 728
8.1.4 Composition and Properties of Butter......Page 729
8.1.5.1 Milk Treatment......Page 732
8.1.5.4 Cream Ripening......Page 733
8.1.5.5 Buttering (Churning)......Page 735
8.1.6 Reconstituted Butter......Page 738
8.1.8 Other Butter Products......Page 739
8.2.1 History of Margarine......Page 740
8.2.2 Economic Importance......Page 741
8.2.3 Legislation......Page 742
8.2.4 The Structure of Margarine......Page 744
8.2.5.1 Fat Blend......Page 747
8.2.5.2.1 Lecithin......Page 751
8.2.5.2.2 Monodiglycerides......Page 752
8.2.5.5 Salt......Page 753
8.2.5.7.2 Sorbic Acid......Page 754
8.2.5.13 Starch......Page 755
8.2.6 Physical Properties......Page 756
8.2.7 Margarine Production......Page 759
8.2.7.1 Ingredient Preparation......Page 760
8.2.7.1.4 Oil/Fat Blend......Page 761
8.2.7.2 Emulsifying......Page 762
8.2.7.3 Cooling (Crystallization) and Working of the Emulsion......Page 763
8.2.7.3.1 Churn-Drum Process (Discontinuous)......Page 764
8.2.7.3.2 Scraped Surface Heat Exchangers Process (Continuous)......Page 765
8.2.7.3.3 The Influence of Temperature, Residence Time and Rotational Speed......Page 770
8.2.8 Packing......Page 771
8.2.8.2 Tub-Filling Machines......Page 774
8.2.8.3 Packing of Margarine for Artisanal and Industrial Use......Page 778
8.2.9.1 Cream Margarine......Page 781
8.2.9.3 Puff Pastry Margarine......Page 782
8.2.10 Half-Fat Margarine......Page 784
8.3.1 White Fats in Wrappers or Tubs......Page 786
8.3.1.2 Plastic Shortenings......Page 787
8.3.2 Fat Specialties......Page 788
8.3.3 Crystal Fat Powder......Page 789
8.4 Salad and Frying Oils......Page 790
8.5 Mayonnaise......Page 794
8.5.1 Legal Basis......Page 795
8.5.2 Composition and Processing......Page 797
8.6.1 Non-Dairy Creams......Page 798
8.7 Peanut Butter......Page 800
8.8 Margarine and Oils with Medium-Chain Triglycerides......Page 801
8.9 Monoglycerides and Monodiglycerides......Page 802
References......Page 804
9.2 Saponification Value......Page 811
9.4 Peroxide Value (POV)......Page 812
9.7 Phosphorus Content......Page 813
9.10 Crude Fiber in Meal......Page 814
9.13 Solid Fat Content......Page 815
9.15 Analysis of Lipids......Page 816
10. Conversion Tables, Abbreviations......Page 817
11. Acknowledgments......Page 821
12.1 Books......Page 823
12.2 Journals......Page 825
A......Page 827
B......Page 829
C......Page 833
D......Page 840
E......Page 844
F......Page 847
G......Page 853
H......Page 854
I......Page 859
L......Page 861
M......Page 864
N......Page 869
O......Page 870
P......Page 873
R......Page 882
S......Page 885
T......Page 893
V......Page 897
W......Page 899
Z......Page 900