Extrusion Cooking: Cereal Grains Processing

Cover
Copyright
Contributors
Author biographies
About the editor
Overview
Basics of extrusion processing
	Introduction to extrusion
	Brief description of extrusion processing
	History of extrusion in brief
	General design of an extruder and terminology
	Principles of extrusion process
		Extrusion process as a MIMO system
		Extruder types
			Single-screw extruders
			Twin-screw extruders
		Screw configuration
	Applications of extrusion processing
		Direct expanded products
		Coextruded snacks
		Pellet products
		Pasta
		Plant-based protein products
		Modified food ingredients
	Conclusions
	References
Engineering aspects of extrusion: Extrusion processing as a multiple-input and multipleoutput system
	Extrusion cooking process introduction
		Extrusion cooking
		Process and mechanical considerations of cooking extruders-A general model
		Mechanical components
	Extrusion cooking as multiple-inputs and multiple-outputs process
		Process parameters
		System parameters
		Product parameters
	Characterization of the extrusion cooking process through system parameters
		Motor torque and specific mechanical energy
		Effect of moisture content
		Melt temperature
		Melt viscosity
		Die and extruder pressure
			Pressure at the die
		Residence time distribution (RTD)
	Starch transformation and extrudate expansion as explained through system and process parameters
		Starch structure
		Starch transformation and shear degradation
		Extrudate expansion
	Scale-up considerations
	Conclusions
	References
Extruder screw, barrel, and die assembly: General design principles and operation
	Introduction
	Basic extruder screw and barrel design considerations
		Flow and mixing mechanisms in extruders
		Rheology of food doughs/melts
		Thermal and mechanical energy input
			Energy consumption
			Energy losses
			Energy supply
				Mechanical energy input
				Heat transfer through the barrel
				Steam injection into the barrel
		Extruder length decision
			Functional delivery complexity
			Retention time requirement
			Material temperature and pressure profile development
		Screw elements design and impact
			Retention time distribution
			Conveying and restriction
				Single-screw extruders forward conveying
				Twin-screw co-rotating extruders forward conveying
			Mixing elements
		Barrel sections design functionality
			Barrel sections style
				Open barrel sections
				Closed barrels sections
				Barrel inside (liner) surface: smooth or grooved
		Single- versus twin-screw extruder
		Motor power, speed reduction, and gearbox
			Motor
			Speed reduction and gearbox
	Die assembly design
		Introduction
		Impact on shape development and flow resistance
			No distributer plate
			Including intermediate distributer (breaker) plates
			Addition of screens to the distributer plate
		Final die plate
	Extruder design for specific food applications
		High viscosity cooking at very low formula moisture concentrations(<17%)
		Medium viscosity cooking at medium formula moisture (18%-24%)
		Low viscosity cooking at high formula moisture (25%-38%)
		Low viscosity cold forming at high formula moisture (25%-38%)
	Final remarks
	References
Raw material behaviors in extrusion processing I (Carbohydrates)
	Introduction
	Carbohydrates in extrusion processing
	Basic chemistry of carbohydrates
		Starch
		Fiber
		Hydrocolloids and sugars
	Phase changes of carbohydrates as impacted by heat and shear
		Starch
		Fiber
	Thermal and rheological properties of carbohydrates
		Thermal properties
		Pasting properties
		Rheological properties
	Phase changes of carbohydrates in an extruder
	Relationship between the energy input and the molecular breakdown of starch
	Interactions between starches and other carbohydrates during extrusion processing
	Conclusions
	References
Raw material behaviors in extrusion processing II (Proteins, lipids, and other minor ingredients)
	Introduction
	Feeding systems
	Proteins
	Characterization of protein ingredients
	Non-extrusion texturization
	Extrusion cooking of texturized proteins
	Texturizable proteins
	Quality measurements
	Mechanisms for protein texturization
	Protein strand formation
	Protein-fortified and high protein foods
	Bubbles in foams
	Lipids
		Other minor ingredients
	Concluding remarks
	References
Transport phenomena and material changes during extrusion
	Introduction: Main transport phenomena and extruder functional zones
	From solid to liquid
		Solid flow and particles friction
		Starch melting, depolymerizing, and glass transition
		Proteins denaturing and aggregating
		Viscous flow in the screw and in the die, rheological properties
	From liquid to solid: Expansion
		Nucleation
		Bubble growth
		Coalescence and foam setting or shrinkage: The role of glass transition and melt elongational viscosity
	Examples of applications to the design of product structure
		A simple model for predicting cellular structure
		Design of legume proteins-fortified extruded snacks
	Conclusion and prospects
	References
	Further reading
Extrusion cooking of high-moisture meat analogues
	Introduction
	Plant protein and additives effects
	Extrusion process variable effects
	Mechanism of texturization
	Comparison of high-moisture (wet) and low-moisture (dry) extrusion texturization processes
	Applications of meat analogues in food product development
	Summary
	References
	Further reading
Extrusion processing of cereal grains, tubers, and seeds
	Introduction
	Extrusion of cereal grains
		Corn
		Rice
		Wheat
		Oats
	Extrusion of ancient grains
		Quinoa
		Sorghum
		Amaranth
		Millet
		Teff
	Extrusion of pulses and beans
		Pulses (peas and lentils)
		Beans
	Extrusion of tubers
	Extrusion characteristics of different fractions of grains
		Whole-grain and refined flours
		Fractionates
	Texture modification in extruded grain products
		Amylose and amylopectin content of starch
		Sugars, salts, and nucleating agents
	Conclusions
	References
Instrumentation for extrusion processing
	Introduction
	Fundamental variables
		Temperature
		Pressure
		Speed
		Power and torque
		Liquid flow
		Steam flow
		Dry material flow
	Measuring and controlling critical parameters
		Specific energy
			Specific mechanical energy (SME)
			Specific thermal energy (STE)
			Retention time (residence time)
			Mixing intensity
			Ratio control
	Raw materials and product responses
		Bulk density
		Moisture/composition
	References
	Further reading
Extrusion cooking modeling, control, and optimization
	Introduction: Definition, interest, and objectives of process modeling
	Data-driven models
		Statistical models and response surface modeling (RSM)
		Connexionist approaches
			Artificial neuron networks (ANN)
			Genetic algorithms (GA)
		Chemical engineering models
	Modeling based on continuum mechanics approach
		Numerical models
		Global model by analysis of functional zones
		Typical results obtained using a global model implemented in a simulation software
	Applications to product and process optimization and control
		Prediction of biopolymers changes and application to scale-up
		Optimizing cellular structure
		Control and automation
		Integrated approach exemplified by 3D printing
	Conclusion and prospects
	References
	Further reading
Scale-up, experimentation, and data evaluation
	Introduction
	Background
		Literature on scale-up
		Definitions
	Concept development
		Example of scale-up
		Lesson learned
		Status of food process scale-up
	Extrusion scale-up
		Primary scale-up criterion for extrusion processes
		A brief discussion on required experiments
		Example for twin-screw extruders
		Example for a single-screw cooking extruder
		Examples for a single-screw forming extruder
	Extrusion secondary scale-up criteria
		Dimensional analysis of screw extruders
		Further application of dimensional analysis
			Constant extrudate properties and fully filled screws
			Partially filled screws
		Non-isothermal operation
		Adiabatic operation
		Scale-up for heat transfer
		The fundamental problem with external heat exchange
		Measuring the heat transfer coefficient
		Prediction of transfer coefficients
			Scale-up of preconditioners
	Summary
	References
Extrusion plant design
	Introduction
	Initial factors to consider for plant design: From idea to reality
	Process steps review, equipment selection, and its layout
		Ingredients handling and batching
	Dry ingredients conveying and mixing
	Dosing, preconditioning, extrusion
	Postextrusion conveying and drying
	Tempering and flaking
		Toasting, coating, and final drying
	Utility requirements
	Automation
	Area classification
	Concluding remarks
	References
Impacts of extrusion processing on nutritional components in cereals and legumes: Carbohydrates, proteins, li ...
	Introduction
	Carbohydrates
		Starch
		Nondigestible carbohydrates
	Proteins
		Protein quality
		Protein solubility
	Lipids
		Lipid binding
		Omega-3 fatty acids
	Vitamins
		Stability of vitamins during extrusion
		Stability of vitamins during storage of extruded products
	Minerals
	Color
	Concluding remarks
	References
Bioconversions in extrusion cooking
	Introduction
	Classification of pretreatment methods
		Physical pretreatment
		Chemical pretreatment
		Physicochemical pretreatment
		Biological pretreatment
	Extrusion pretreatment
		Extrusion cooking
		Extruder variables
			Outline placeholder
				Screw speed
				Barrel temperature
				Feed rate
		Feed ingredient variables
			Outline placeholder
				Feed composition
				Feed moisture
				Feed particle size
	Enzymatic conversions during extrusion cooking
	Enzymes and extrusion cooking
	Extrusion as a pretreatment for ethanol fermentation
		Effect of extrusion processing parameters on the ethanol recovery
	Conclusions
	References
Advances in auxiliary technologies for extrusion processing
	Introduction
	Extruder inlet/feed throat modification
	Downstream extruder capabilities
		Supercritical carbon dioxide injection
			Functional ingredient preservation
			Texture development using supercritical carbon dioxide
		Side feeders/vent stuffers
	Ancillary technologies at extruder exit
		Screen changers
		Melt pumps
		Dynamic dies
	Conclusions
	References
Food safety in extrusion processing
	Introduction
	Extruded products and food safety
	Food safety modernization act (FSMA)
		Preventive controls for human food
		Validation of controls
			How is a validation process conducted?
				Validation using surrogate microorganisms
	Extrusion process and food safety
	Conclusions
	References
Future of extrusion processing
	Introduction
	Extrusion of new ingredients and products
		New ingredients
		By-products utilization
		Textures
		Reactive ingredients
	Extrusion equipment
		Screws
		Barrel
		Dies
		Extrusion system
		Extrusion software
	Postextrusion operations
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	V
	W
Back Cover