Extraction of Natural Products from Agro-industrial Wastes: A Green and Sustainable Approach

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Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to agro-industrial waste
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Types and sources of agro-industrial wastes
		1.2.1 Agricultural residues
		1.2.2 Industrial wastes
	1.3 Problems of agro-industrial wastes
	1.4 Benefits, recycle, and reuse of agro-industrial wastes
		1.4.1 Bioconversion of agro-industrial wastes to industrially important enzymes
		1.4.2 Agro-industrial wastes as sources of bioactive compounds for food, fermentation, and drug industries
		1.4.3 Agro-industrial wastes and their utilization using solid state fermentation
		1.4.4 Bioenergy and biorefineries
		1.4.5 Green and sustainable separation of natural products from agro^^e2^^80^^90industrial waste
		1.4.6 Agro-industrial wastes as fertilizers in aquaculture
		1.4.7 Other miscellaneous value-added applications
	1.5 Conclusion and future perspective
	References
Chapter 2 Introduction to natural product
	2.1 Natural product
	2.2 Secondary metabolites
	2.3 Alkaloid
		2.3.1 Purine alkaloids
		2.3.2 Tropane alkaloids
		2.3.3 Calystegines
		2.3.4 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
		2.3.5 Quinolizidine alkaloids
		2.3.6 Benzyl isoquinoline alkaloids
		2.3.7 Ipecac alkaloids
		2.3.8 Amaryllidaceae alkaloids
		2.3.9 Monoterpene indole alkaloids
	2.4 Camptothecin
		2.4.1 Lignans and lignins
		2.4.2 Polyketides
		2.4.3 Hemiterpenes
		2.4.4 Monoterpenes
		2.4.5 Sesquiterpenes
	2.5 Triterpenes and steroids
		2.5.1 Saponins
		2.5.2 Tetraterpenes
		2.5.3 The potential of the natural product
	2.6 A source of natural product
	2.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3 Ionic liquids with microwave-assisted extraction of natural products
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Ionic liquids: general considerations, classification, and properties
	3.3 Ionic liquids as solvents for microwave extraction
		3.3.1 ILs and MAE for simultaneous extraction of different classes of compounds
		3.3.2 ILs and MAE for targeted extraction of individual classes of compounds
	4 Concluding remarks and future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 4 Pressurized liquid extraction of natural products
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Pressurized liquid extraction \(PLE\)
		4.1.2 Influence of operational parameters
		4.1.3 Phytonic process
		4.1.4 Negative pressure cavitation extraction \(NPCE\)
		4.1.5 Influence of operational parameters
		4.1.6 Process improvements
		4.1.7 Combined processes
	4.2 Instant controlled pressure drop
		4.2.1 Hydrodistillation/steam distillation occurs by several physicochemical processes: hydrodiffusion, hydrolysis, decomposition of compounds
		4.2.2 Process additional benefits and improvements
		4.2.3 High hydrostatic pressure extraction \(HHPE\)
	4.3 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 5 Supercritical CO2 extraction of natural products
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Preparation of samples for supercritical CO2 extraction
	5.3 Supercritical CO2 extraction of bioactive compounds from natural products
	5.4 Supercritical CO2 and novel methods of food processing
	5.5 Controlled puffing in extrusion
	5.6 Removal of hexane from soybean oil
	5.7 Environmental applications of supercritical CO2 extraction
	5.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 6 Solvent extraction of natural products
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Sample preparation
	6.3 Extraction methods
		6.3.1 Maceration
		6.3.2 Percolation
		6.3.3 Soxhlet extraction
		6.3.4 Microwave-assisted extraction \(MAE\)
		6.3.5 Ultrasound-assisted extraction \(UAE\)
		6.3.6 Accelerated solvent extraction \(ASE\)
		6.3.7 Supercritical fluid extraction \(SFE\)
		6.3.8 Distillation methods
	6.4 Determination of phytochemicals
		6.4.1 Presence of alkaloids
		6.4.2 Presence of flavonoids
		6.4.3 Presence of phytosterols
		6.4.4 Presence of phenols
		6.4.5 Presence of diterpenes
		6.4.6 Presence of proteins and amino acids
		6.4.7 Presence of carbohydrates
	6.5 Separation methods
		6.5.1 Chromatographic techniques
	6.6 Structure elucidation
		6.6.1 UV^^e2^^80^^93visible spectroscopy
		6.6.2 Fourier transform infrared \(FTIR\) spectroscopy
		6.6.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance \(NMR\) spectroscopy
	6.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7 Extraction of flavonoids from agrowaste
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 General presentation of flavonoids
		7.1.2 Uses of flavonoids
	7.2 Extraction from agrowaste
		7.2.1 General considerations
		7.2.2 Different categories of agrowaste for flavonoids extraction
	7.3 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 8 Extraction of bioactive compounds from agro-industrial waste
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Extraction processes
		8.2.1 Pressurized liquid extraction \(PLE\)
		8.2.2 Ultrasound-assisted extraction \(UAE\)
		8.2.3 Microwave-assisted extraction \(MAE\)
		8.2.4 Subcritical water extraction \(SWE\)
		8.2.5 Supercritical fluid extraction \(ScFE\)
		8.2.6 Enzyme-assisted extraction
	8.3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9 Extraction of antioxidants from agro-industrial waste
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Antioxidants
	9.3 Extraction methods
		9.3.1 Ultrasound-assisted extraction
		9.3.2 Microwave-assisted extraction \(MAE\)
		9.3.3 Super critical extraction
		9.3.4 Pulsed electric field
		9.3.5 Pressurized liquid extraction
	9.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10 Extraction of carotenoids from agro-industrial waste
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Plants as source of carotenoids
	10.3 Chemistry
	10.4 Carotenoids and their health benefits
		10.4.1 Carotenoids as provitamin A
		10.4.2 Carotenoids as antioxidant
		10.4.3 Anticancerous properties
		10.4.4 Antiobesity effect
		10.4.5 Bone health
		10.4.6 Carotenoids and cellular signaling
		10.4.7 Photosensitivity disorders
	10.5 Effects of food processing on carotenoids stability and/or bioavailability
		10.5.1 Postharvest storage
		10.5.2 Thermal processing
	10.6 Application of carotenoids in food industry
	10.7 Extraction of carotenoids from agro-industrial waste
	10.8 Conventional extraction techniques
	10.9 Nonconventional extraction techniques
		10.9.1 Supercritical fluid extraction
		10.9.2 Ultrasound-assisted extraction \(UAE\)
		10.9.3 Microwave-assisted extraction
		10.9.4 Pressurized liquid extraction \(PLE\)
		10.9.5 Electro technologies for extraction of bioactive compounds
	10.10 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11 Extraction of lycopene from agro-industrial waste
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Lycopene sources
	11.3 Role of lycopene in human health
	11.4 Extraction and purification
		11.4.1 Extraction
		11.4.2 Extraction methods
	11.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 12 Extraction of natural dyes from agro-industrial waste
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Different methods of extraction of natural dyes
		12.2.1 Ultrasonic and microwave extraction
		12.2.2 Fermentation
		12.2.3 Aqueous extraction
		12.2.4 Enzymatic extractions
		12.2.5 Acid and alkali extraction
		12.2.6 Spray drying technique
		12.2.7 Supercritical fluid extraction
	12.3 Various sources of natural dyes
		12.3.1 Chickpea husk
		12.3.2 Pomegranate rinds
		12.3.3 Myrobolan
		12.3.4 Barberry
		12.3.5 Peanut skin
		12.3.6 Walnut husk
		12.3.7 Marigold
		12.3.8 Onion
	12.4 Some demerits related to natural dyes
		12.4.1 Cost
		12.4.2 Poor color fastness properties and reproducibility
		12.4.3 Availability
		12.4.4 Harmful effects
		12.4.5 Marketing
		12.4.6 Storage
	12.5 Biological methods for production of various pigments
		12.5.1 Submerged fermentation
		12.5.2 Solid state fermentation
	12.6 Applications
		12.6.1 Natural dyes used for coloration food stuff
		12.6.2 Application of natural dyes in functional finishing of textiles
		12.6.3 Application of natural dyes for medicinal purpose
		12.6.4 Application of natural dyes in dye-sensitized solar cells
		12.6.5 Few other applications of natural dyes
	12.7 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 13 Extraction of lignin from agro-industrial waste
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Source of lignin
		13.2.1 Organosolv lignin
		13.2.2 Hydrolysis lignin
		13.2.3 Kraft lignin
		13.2.4 Pyrolytic lignin
	13.3 Extraction of lignin by using various methods
		13.3.1 Organosolv treatment
		13.3.2 Steam explosion
		13.3.3 Alkaline pulping method
	13.4 Biochemistry of extracted lignin from agro-industrial waste
	13.5 Challenges and future outlook
	13.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	Conflicts of interest
	References
Chapter 14 Extraction of fatty acids from agro-industrial waste and its significance
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Characteristics of fatty acids
	14.3 Fatty acids from agro-industrial waste
	14.4 Processing of deodorizer \(DO\) distillate
		14.4.1 Hydrolysis and recovery of fractions
		14.4.2 Fatty acid composition
	14.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15 Extraction of pectin from agro-industrial waste
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Basic structure and classification of pectin
	15.3 Properties of pectin
		15.3.1 Colloidal properties
		15.3.2 Gelation properties
		15.3.3 Rheological properties
	15.4 Sources and extraction of pectin from agro-industrial wastes
	15.5 Pectin extraction from agro-industrial waste as affected by the parameters: pH, temperature, and time
	15.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 16 Extraction of cellulosic fibers from date palm by-products
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Materials and methods
		16.2.1 Materials
		16.2.2 Fibers extraction
		16.2.3 Testing and evaluation
		16.2.4 Statistical analysis
	16.3 Results and discussion
		16.3.1 Cross-sectional area
		16.3.2 Tensile strength
	16.4 Optimum conditions
	16.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 17 Recent developments in extraction of keratin from industrial wastes
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Sources of keratin protein
	17.3 Structure keratin
	17.4 Extraction of keratin
		17.4.1 Reduction method for the extraction of keratin
		17.4.2 Effect of different reducing, surfactant, pH, and denaturing agents
		17.4.3 Sulfitolysis methods for the extraction of keratin
		17.4.4 Alkali methods for the extraction of keratin
		17.4.5 Ionic liquid methods for the extraction of keratin
	17.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 18 Extraction of essential oils from coconut agro-industrial waste
	18.1 Introduction
		18.1.1 Coconut production and economic potential
		18.1.2 Coconut agro-industrial waste and its problems
		18.1.3 Coconut agro-industry residual potential in biorefineries utilization
		18.1.4 Coconut agro-industrial waste challenges and opportunities
	18.2 Chemical composition of essential oils
	18.3 Extraction of essential oils
		18.3.1 Essential oils extraction is conducted using two major techniques
	18.4 Standard methods of extracting essential oil
		18.4.1 Cold pressing
		18.4.2 Solvent extraction
		18.4.3 The ^^e2^^80^^9ceffleurage^^e2^^80^^9d method
		18.4.4 Distillation
		18.4.5 Extraction with supercritical gases
	18.5 Extraction of essential oil from coconuts industrial waste
	Calculations
		18.5.1 Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector \(GC-FID\) analysis of essential oil
		18.5.2 Gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry \(GCMS\)
	18.6 Volatile constituents of coconut industrial waste
		18.6.1 Composition of volatile constituents
		18.6.2 Structure of the major volatile compounds
	18.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 19 Extraction of cellulose from agro-industrial wastes
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Cellulose
		19.2.1 Structure
		19.2.2 Chemical and mechanical properties
		19.2.3 Sources of cellulose
	19.3 Potential waste sources of cellulose
	19.4 Cellulose extraction techniques
		19.4.1 Cellulose fiber extraction
		19.4.2 Cellulose microfibril/nanofibril extraction
		19.4.3 Cellulose nanocrystal extraction
	19.5 Applications
		19.5.1 Applications of cellulose fiber
		19.5.2 Applications of cellulose nanoparticles
	19.6 Concluding remarks
	References
Index