Extended Biocontrol

Preface
Introduction
	Crops Need to Be Protected - But Differently
	Extended Biocontrol: A Fresh Look at an Age-Old Approach
	The Biocontrol Arsenal
		The Different Types of Biological Control
		Microbial Control
		Botanical Biopesticides
		Semiochemicals
		From the Lab to the Field
	Challenges to Be Tackled
	Combining Extended Biocontrol with Other Plant-Health Management Methods
Contents
Contributors
Part I: Biological Control: Theoretical Foundations and Applications
	Chapter 1: Integrative Systematics and Adaptations of Natural Enemies to Their Hosts
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 General Remarks on the Diversity of Macroorganisms for Biological Control
			1.2.1 Taxonomic Diversity
			1.2.2 Antagonistic Interactions Between Natural Enemies and Target Pests
		1.3 The Underlying Challenges of Identifying Beneficial Macroorganisms
			1.3.1 Identification Issues
			1.3.2 Integrative Taxonomy: A Core Discipline
			1.3.3 Other Benefits of Molecular Diagnostics
		1.4 A Deeper Look at Three Cross-Cutting Eco-Evolutionary Themes
			1.4.1 Ecological Specialization in Natural Enemies
			1.4.2 Behavioural Adaptations in Natural Enemies: Finding Targets
			1.4.3 Diversity of Symbionts in Natural Enemies
		1.5 Conclusion
	Chapter 2: The Biology of Introduced Populations
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Ideas That Inspire
			2.2.1 Science and Technology
			2.2.2 Finding Equilibrium
			2.2.3 Propagule Pressure
		2.3 The Laws of Small Numbers
		2.4 Lost Benefits at Small Numbers: The Allee Effect
			2.4.1 Definitions
			2.4.2 Allee Effect and Classical Biological Control
			2.4.3 Allee Effect, Autocidal Control and Mating Disruption
		2.5 Lower Genetic Diversity in Small Populations
		2.6 Conclusion
	Chapter 3: Classical Biological Control
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Definition, History and Evolution
		3.3 Foreign Exploration
		3.4 Importing Exotic Material and Performing Laboratory Evaluations
		3.5 Environmental Release of Biological Control Agents
		3.6 Conclusion
	Chapter 4: Augmentative Biological Control Using Entomophagous Arthropods
		4.1 Background and Definitions
			4.1.1 The Blurred Line Between Inoculation and Inundation
			4.1.2 A Brief History of Augmentative Biological Control
		4.2 Current Challenges
			4.2.1 Mass Production of Biological Control Agents
			4.2.2 Business Models
			4.2.3 Non-target Effects
		4.3 Ways to Improve Augmentative Biological Control
			4.3.1 Genetic Improvement of Biological Control Agents
			4.3.2 Improving Mass Production
			4.3.3 Resource Supplementation
			4.3.4 Population Dynamics
			4.3.5 Entomovectoring
		4.4 Conclusion
	Chapter 5: Sterile Insect Technique: Principles, Deployment and Prospects
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Technical Basics
			5.2.1 Mass Rearing the Target Insect
			5.2.2 Sex Separation
			5.2.3 Sterilization
			5.2.4 Releases and Monitoring
		5.3 Conditions of Application
		5.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of SIT
			5.4.1 Strengths
			5.4.2 Limits
		5.5 Future Research Avenues
			5.5.1 Technical Improvements
			5.5.2 Integration and Synergy
			5.5.3 The Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT): A Complementary Approach
		5.6 Environmental and Sociological Implications
		5.7 Insects and Society
			5.7.1 Transdisciplinary Synergy
			5.7.2 Regulatory Framework
			5.7.3 Economic Integration
		5.8 Conclusion
Part II: Stimulating Natural Pest Control in Agricultural Landscapes: Theoretical and Operational Insights into Conservation B...
	Chapter 6: Community Ecology, Food Webs and Natural Pest Control
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Types of Interactions Within Communities
		6.3 Correlations Between the Horizontal Diversity of Natural Enemy Communities and Natural Pest Control
		6.4 The Effect of Vertical Diversity of Communities on Natural Pest Control
			6.4.1 Trophic Cascades
			6.4.2 Trophic Structure and Network Stability
			6.4.3 Modelling Ecological Network Assembly
			6.4.4 Research Possibilities on Interaction Networks
		6.5 Metacommunities and Landscape Ecology
			6.5.1 Metacommunity Theory
			6.5.2 Landscape Ecology: Landscape Organization Patterns and Ecological Processes
		6.6 Conclusion
	Chapter 7: Agroecological Management of Insect Pests from Field to Landscape
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Principles of Conservation Biological Control
		7.3 Effects of Farming Practices at Field Level
			7.3.1 Plant Diversity over Space and Time
			7.3.2 Nitrogen Fertilization
			7.3.3 Tillage Practices
			7.3.4 Organic Farming
		7.4 Biological Pest Control at the Landscape Scale
			7.4.1 Transition Areas Between Cultivated and Non-cultivated Habitats
			7.4.2 Landscape Structure and Natural Pest Control
		7.5 Conclusion
	Chapter 8: Biological Control for Weed Management
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Weed Control Using Sown Plants
			8.2.1 Competition and Allelopathy
			8.2.2 Weed Control Using Sown Plants
				8.2.2.1 Field Management
				8.2.2.2 Field Margins and Grass Strips
				8.2.2.3 Landscape Composition and Configuration
		8.3 Control by Seed-Eating Organisms
			8.3.1 Weed Seed Predation
			8.3.2 Seed Predation and Weed Control
			8.3.3 Controlling Weed Seed Predation
				8.3.3.1 Field Management
				8.3.3.2 Field Margins
				8.3.3.3 Landscape Composition and Configuration
		8.4 Conclusion
Part III: Microorganisms and Biological Control
	Chapter 9: Plant Microbiota: Diversity, Transmission and Function
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Microbial Diversity According to Habitats
		9.3 Microbiota Assembly and Transmission Processes
		9.4 Impact of the Plant Microbiota on Host Fitness
		9.5 Leveraging the Microbiota to Improve Plant Growth and Health
	Chapter 10: Agroecological Protection to Support Plant Health: Where the Microbiota Fits In
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Agricultural Production and Pest Management
		10.3 New Levers to Explore: Plant-Microbiota Interactions and Their Role in Agricultural Ecosystems
		10.4 Connecting Microbiota and Agroecological Practices
	Chapter 11: Microorganisms as Biocontrol Products
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Biological Control: An Array of Microorganisms Described
		11.3 Commercial Products
		11.4 Mode of Action of Microbial Biocontrol Agents
			11.4.1 Antibiosis
			11.4.2 Hyperparasitism
			11.4.3 Competing for Nutrients and Space
			11.4.4 Interference with Pathogenicity
			11.4.5 Modifying Plant Leaf Surface Properties
			11.4.6 Induction of Host Plant Resistance
			11.4.7 Combined Modes of Action
		11.5 Factors Affecting the Efficacy of Microbial Biocontrol Agents
			11.5.1 Local Environmental Context
			11.5.2 Farming Practices
			11.5.3 Biocontrol Product Quality and Method of Application
			11.5.4 Variability of Target Pests
		11.6 Conclusion
	Chapter 12: The Role of Microbial Metabolites in Biological Control
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Rhamnolipids: Multi-faceted Compounds
		12.3 Lipopeptides: Structural and Activity Biodiversity
		12.4 Polyketides Synthesized by Biological Control Agents of the Genus Pseudomonas
		12.5 Conclusion
Part IV: Botanical Biopesticides
	Chapter 13: Botanical Pesticides as Biocontrol Products
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Botanical Biopesticides and Organic Agriculture
		13.3 Description of Botanical Biopesticides Currently Used as Biocontrol Products in France
			13.3.1 Pyrethrins
			13.3.2 Vegetable Oils: The Example of Rapeseed Oil
			13.3.3 Essential Oils from Aromatic Plants
			13.3.4 Fatty Acids: The Example of Pelargonic Acid
			13.3.5 Sulphur Compounds in the Brassicaceae Family and Allium Genus
			13.3.6 Maltodextrin
		13.4 Conclusion
	Chapter 14: Challenges in Developing Botanical Biopesticides for Pest Control
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Applied Research Process for Compounds Based on Plant-Pest Interactions
		14.3 Technical Obstacles to Overcome
			14.3.1 Difficulties in Standardizing Plant Extract Production
			14.3.2 Optimizing the Formulation for Effective and Durable Botanical Biopesticides
		14.4 Side Effects to Be Considered
			14.4.1 Pest Resistance to Natural Plant Extracts
			14.4.2 Environmental Impact of These Products
		14.5 Are Botanical Biopesticides Safe for Humans?
Part V: Semiochemicals and Pest Control
	Chapter 15: Semiochemicals and Communication in Insects
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Semiochemicals Regulate Many Insect Behaviours
			15.2.1 Intraspecific Signals
			15.2.2 Interspecific Signals and Cues
		15.3 An Extraordinary Diversity of Semiochemicals
			15.3.1 Volatile Substances
			15.3.2 Non-volatile Substances
		15.4 Methods for Identifying Chemical Signals and Analysing Their Perception
			15.4.1 Collecting Chemical Signals
			15.4.2 Mixture Separation and Determination of Molecular Structure
			15.4.3 Study of the Biological Effect of Semiochemicals
				15.4.3.1 Electrophysiology
				15.4.3.2 Studying Insect Behavioural Responses to Chemical Stimuli
		15.5 Conclusion
	Chapter 16: Anatomy and Functioning of the Insect Chemosensory System
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Neurophysiological Organization of Chemosensory Systems
			16.2.1 Chemoreceptor Organs and Sensilla
			16.2.2 Chemoreceptor Neurons
			16.2.3 Brain Centres of Chemosensation
		16.3 Molecular Mechanisms of Chemosensory Detection
			16.3.1 Chemosensory Receptors
			16.3.2 Odorant Receptors (ORs)
			16.3.3 Gustatory Receptors (GRs)
			16.3.4 Ionotropic Receptors (IRs)
			16.3.5 Soluble Proteins
			16.3.6 Identifying Chemosensory Receptors in Insects
			16.3.7 Functional Studies of Odorant Receptors
		16.4 Neural Coding of Chemical Signals
		16.5 Chemosensory Plasticity
			16.5.1 Olfactory Plasticity
			16.5.2 Gustatory Plasticity
		16.6 Conclusion
	Chapter 17: Semiochemicals and Insect Control
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Different Uses of Semiochemicals for Insect Control
			17.2.1 Insect Pest Population Monitoring
			17.2.2 Mass Trapping and the Attract-and-Kill Approach
			17.2.3 Mating Disruption
			17.2.4 The Push-Pull Strategy with Companion Plants
			17.2.5 Olfactory ``Resistant´´ Cultivars
		17.3 Future Prospects
			17.3.1 Better Exploiting Plant-Insect and Plant-Plant Communication
			17.3.2 Microorganisms and Olfaction
			17.3.3 Reverse Chemical Ecology: Understanding the Molecular Mechanisms of Olfactory Detection
		17.4 Conclusion
Part VI: Conditions for Successful Biocontrol and Its Large-Scale Deployment
	Chapter 18: The Challenge of Biocontrol Deployment
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Field-Scale Biocontrol Deployment: Success Factors
			18.2.1 Introduced Macroorganisms and Microorganisms
			18.2.2 Management of Pest Regulation Services Provided by Native and Introduced Macro- and Microorganisms
			18.2.3 Natural Substances (of Animal, Plant or Mineral Origin) and Semiochemicals (Pheromones, Kairomones)
		18.3 Area-Wide Deployment of Biocontrol
			18.3.1 The Deployment of Certain Methods Must Be Considered at an Area-Wide Level
			18.3.2 Managing Ecosystem Services at the Landscape Scale
			18.3.3 Biocontrol Depends on Area-Wide Pest Management Strategies to Prevent Epidemics
			18.3.4 How Sustainable Would Extended Biocontrol Deployment Be?
		18.4 Diffusing Innovation Across the Value Chain
	Chapter 19: Biocontrol in France: Prospects for Structuring a Developing Sector
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Talking About Biocontrol: An Analysis Based on Scientific, Media and Institutional Discourse
		19.3 The Role of Biocontrol in Agricultural Processing
			19.3.1 The Green Revolution
			19.3.2 Externalities
			19.3.3 Markets and Intermediaries
		19.4 Can Biocontrol Be Reduced to a Product Format?
		19.5 Regulation: An Unsuitable Obstacle for Biocontrol Players, Uncertainty for Civil Society
		19.6 Biocontrol and Placement on the Market: Moving Towards Pluralist Business Models
			19.6.1 Classical Biological Control and Inoculation Biological Control: Towards an Alternative Business Model
			19.6.2 Conservation Biological Control: A Focus on Services
			19.6.3 Inundation Biological Control: Translating the Conventional Model
		19.7 Conclusion
	Chapter 20: Integrating Biocontrol into Cropping System Design
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Systemic Agriculture Concepts and Methods
			20.2.1 Cropping Means Implementing Practices in a Systemic Way
			20.2.2 Growing Crops with Biocontrol Means Redesigning the Agricultural System
		20.3 The Importance of the Systemic Nature of Biocontrol Solutions: Some Examples
			20.3.1 In Horticulture, Releases of Organisms That Must Be Supported
			20.3.2 In Field Crops, Developing Biocontrol Means Rethinking the Whole System
			20.3.3 Inundative Releases of Trichogramma and Supporting Their Populations
			20.3.4 Rethinking the Field and the Surrounding Area for Aphid Control Means a Comprehensive Redesign
				20.3.4.1 In the Field Itself
				20.3.4.2 Around the Field
		20.4 New Issues, New Methods and New Regulations
			20.4.1 Biocontrol Use Calls for Revising How Cropping Systems and the Solutions Themselves Are Evaluated
			20.4.2 Reconsider How to Design and Include Farmers´ Innovations
			20.4.3 Revise Economic Tools to Promote Biocontrol in Cropping Systems
		20.5 Conclusion
	Chapter 21: New Technologies for the Deployment of Extended Biocontrol
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Seeds: A Target of Treatment and a Biocontrol Application Vector
			21.2.1 The Strategic Importance of Seeds
			21.2.2 Activating Immunity in Seed Plants and Seeds: A Lever for Extended Biocontrol
			21.2.3 Seeds as a Target and Vector for Biocontrol Solutions
		21.3 The Challenge of Formulating Biocontrol Substances and Organisms
			21.3.1 Formulation: An Overview
			21.3.2 Formulation for Extended Biocontrol: A Challenge for Industry
			21.3.3 The Future of Formulation in Extended Biocontrol
		21.4 Agricultural Equipment, Robotics and Digital Technology to Optimize Biocontrol
		21.5 Conclusion
Part VII: Is Biological Control a Sustainable Crop Protection Method?
	Chapter 22: Health and Biodiversity Risks Linked to a Major Bioinsecticide: Bacillus thuringiensis
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Bt Biopesticides
		22.3 Possible Links to Health Risks Associated with Bt Products
		22.4 Possible Sources of Bt Contamination
		22.5 Persistence of Bt in the Environment and the Digestive Tract
		22.6 The Environmental Impacts of Bt
		22.7 Conclusion
	Chapter 23: Can Pests Develop Resistance to Biocontrol Products?
		23.1 Many Biocontrol Agents on the Market, Variable Efficacy in the Field
		23.2 Pest Adaptation to Plant Protection Methods
		23.3 Proven Cases of Pest Resistance to Biocontrol Agents
		23.4 Risk of Crop Pests and Diseases Developing Resistance to Biocontrol Agents
			23.4.1 Estimating Diversity in the Level of Pest Resistance to Biocontrol Agents
			23.4.2 Assessing Pests´ Adaptive Capacity to Biocontrol Agents
			23.4.3 Impact of the Mode of Action of Biocontrol Agents on Their Durability
		23.5 Conclusion
Acronyms
Glossary
References