Experimental Phonetics An Introduction

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Author's acknowledgements
Publisher's acknowledgements
1 Introduction: impressionistic phonetics andexperimental phonetics
	1.1 What is experimental phonetics?
	1.2 Impressionistic phonetics
		1.2.1 Assumptions
		1.2.2 Methodology
	1.3 The scope of experimental phonetics
	1.4 The representation of speech sounds
		1.4.1 Segments and phonemes
		1.4.2 Mental representations
	1.5 Experimental phonetics and the structure of sound systems
	1.6 The structure and scope of this book
	1.7 Further reading
	Note
2 The nature of sound
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Sound waves
		2.2.1 Describing a simple sound wave
		2.2.2 From movements to pressures
		2.2.3 Sound waves in space
		2.2.4 Some definitions
	2.3 Types of sound waves
	2.4 The structure of sound waves
		2.4.1 Specifying sound waves
		2.4.2 The spectrum
		2.4.3 Generating some vowel-like waveforms
		2.4.4 Spectra of aperiodic sounds
	2.5 Scaling and the spectrum
		2.5.1 Amplitude, power and intensity
		2.5.2 The decibel scale
		2.5.3 The octave scale
	2.6 Summary
	2.7 Further reading
	Notes
3 Analysing sound: the spectrograph
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Spectrography
		3.2.1 Basic principles
		3.2.2 An example spectrogram
		3.2.3 Narrow band spectrograms
		3.2.4 Pre-emphasis
		3.2.5 Two-dimensional spectra
		3.2.6 Supplementary displays: waveform, intensity and fundamental frequency
	3.3 Recording
		3.3.1 Recording as translation
		3.3.2 Fidelity
		3.3.3 Digital recording
			3.3.3.1 Sampling rate
			3.3.3.2 Quantisation
	3.4 Digital spectrography
		3.4.1 Recording for analysis
		3.4.2 Calculating the power spectrum
		3.4.3 Determining fundamental frequency (F0)
	3.5 Summary
	3.6 Further reading
4 The acoustics of speech production
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Modelling a simple vowel
		4.2.1 The voice source
		4.2.2 The vocal tract filter
			4.2.2.1 The concept of filter
			4.2.2.2 Formant frequencies
		4.2.3 Combining source and filter
		4.2.4 The radiation function
		4.2.5 Comparison with a spoken vowel
	4.3 Varying the voice source
	4.4 Varying the vocal tract filter
		4.4.1 Simple models for three vowels
		4.4.2 More realistic models of vowel articulation
		4.4.3 A general model of vowel production
		4.4.4 Phonological implications of modelling
	4.5 Estimating filter characteristics: linear predictive coding
	4.6 Extending the source-filter approach to other classes of speech sounds
		4.6.1 Nasals, laterals and nasalised vowels
		4.6.2 Obstruent consonants
	4.7 Summary
	4.8 Further reading
	Notes
5 Perception and hearing
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 From acoustic signals to perceptual objects: the search for acoustic cues
		5.2.1 An example: Voice Onset Time
		5.2.2 The problem of lack of invariance
		5.2.3 Is speech special?
			5.2.3.1 Categorical perception
			5.2.3.2 Multiple cues and trading relations
			5.2.3.3 Duplex perception
			5.2.3.4 Bimodal perception
			5.2.3.5 Arguments against the specialness of speech
		5.2.4 Theories of speech perception
			5.2.4.1 The Motor Theory
			5.2.4.2 Direct Realism
			5.2.4.3 The Fuzzy Logical Model
			5.2.4.4 Strong theories relating the acoustic signal to phonological features
			5.2.4.5 Non-analytic approaches
	5.3 Hearing
		5.3.1 Structure of the auditory system
		5.3.2 Spectra in the auditory nerve
			5.3.2.1 Voiceless fricatives
			5.3.2.2 Vowels
		5.3.3 The VOT boundary
		5.3.4 Adaptation
	5.4 Psychophysics and the auditory spectrograph
		5.4.1 Scales of frequency based on auditory filters
		5.4.2 Auditory spectra
	5.5 Conclusion
	5.6 Further reading
	Note
6 The acoustic description of vowels
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Formant frequencies and the vowel quadrilateral
		6.2.1 The rounding dimension
		6.2.2 Central vowels
	6.3 Formant frequencies and vowel charts: the problem of psychological reality
	6.4 The spectral integration hypothesis
		6.4.1 Integration of F2 with other formants
		6.4.2 A role for F0?
	6.5 A system of binary features for vowels?
	6.6 The traditional vowel quadrilateral revisited
	6.7 Other dimensions of vowel classification
		6.7.1 Nasalised vowels
		6.7.2 Advanced Tongue Root (ATR) vowels
		6.7.3 Rhoticity and pharyngealisation
	6.8 Diphthongs
	6.9 Alternative approaches to vowel quality
	6.10 The problem of normalisation
	6.11 Predicting the structure of vowel systems
	6.12 Summary
	6.13 Further reading
7 The acoustic description of consonants
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 General concepts
		7.2.1 Intervals and transitions
		7.2.2 Acoustic dimensions in the description and classification of consonants
		7.2.3 Acoustic boundaries and consonants
	7.3 Stop consonants
		7.3.1 General characteristics of stop consonants
		7.3.2 Voicing and aspiration
		7.3.3 Place of articulation
			7.3.3.1 Stop bursts
			7.3.3.2 Formant transitions
			7.3.3.3 Spectral templates as invariant cues
	7.4 Fricatives
	7.5 Affricates
	7.6 The fricative-affricate contrast
	7.7 Phonological contrasts involving voicing in obstruents
	7.8 Sonorant consonants
		7.8.1 Nasals
		7.8.2 Semivowels
		7.8.3 Lateral approximants (L-sounds)
		7.8.4 Rhotics (R-sounds)
		7.8.5 An overview of manner contrasts involving sonorants
	7.9 Acoustic phonetics and the structure of consonant systems
	7.10 Further reading
	Notes
8 Speech production
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 The airstream
		8.2.1 Principles of air flow
		8.2.2 Respiratory function in speech
		8.2.3 Measuring and quantifying pressure and flow
			8.2.3.1 Pressure
			8.2.3.2 Flow
	8.3 The larynx and the vocal folds
		8.3.1 A simple description of the larynx
		8.3.2 Vocal fold vibration
		8.3.3 Aerodynamics of vocal fold vibration
		8.3.4 Experimental investigation of the larynx
		8.3.5 The laryngeal setting
			8.3.5.1 Direct observation
			8.3.5.2 Imaging
			8.3.5.3 Electromyography
		8.3.6 More indirect methods for monitoring vocal fold activity
			8.3.6.1 Inverse filtering
			8.3.6.2 Photoelectric glottography
			8.3.6.3 Electroglottography (electrolaryngography)
			8.3.6.4 Acoustic measures of phonation types
		8.3.7 Models of vocal fold vibration and features of the larynx
		8.3.8 Control of fundamental frequency
		8.3.9 Control of voicing in obstruents
			8.3.9.1 Problems of maintaining voicing: aerodynamic aspects
			8.3.9.2 Strategies for maintaining and inhibiting voicing
	8.4 Articulation
		8.4.1 Imaging techniques
		8.4.2 Point-tracking techniques
		8.4.3 Palatography
		8.4.4 Identifying articulatory dimensions: the case of vowels
	8.5 Wider issues: relating phonological representations to speech production
	8.6 Further reading
Appendix: An overview of impressionistic-phonetic classification
	A.l Preliminaries: air flow in the vocal tract
	A.2 Consonants
		A.2.l Sonorants and obstruents
		A.2.2 The place dimension
		A.2.3 The manner dimension
		A.2.4 Simultaneous and sequential articulations
		A.2.5 Non-pulmonic consonants
		A.2.6 Refinements
		A.2.7 Impossible and unattested sound types
	A.3 Vowels
		A.3.l Dimensions of vowel classification
		A.3.2 Refinements
		A.3.3 Diphthongs
	A.4 Suprasegmentals (prosodic features)
	A.5 Using the IPA
	A.6 Further reading
Bibliography
Index