Evidence-Based Imaging in Pediatrics: Clinical Decision Support for Optimized Imaging in Pediatric Care

Foreword
	References
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Contents
About the Editors
Consulting Editors
Contributors
Part I: Pediatric Imaging: Principles, Methodology, and Risks
	1 Principles of Evidence-Based Imaging
		Discussion of Issues
			What Is Evidence-Based Imaging?
		The Evidence-Based Imaging Process
		Bayes´ Theorem, Predictive Values, and the Likelihood Ratio
		How to Use This Book
		Take-Home Appendix 1: Equations
		Take-Home Appendix 2: Summary of Bayes´ Theorem
		References
	2 Pediatric Radiology: Demonstrating Value
		Why Study Value?
		Value in Medicine
			Value Frameworks
			American College of Cardiologists and American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) Cost/Value Framework
			American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) Value of Cancer Framework
			National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Evidence Blocks
			Institute for Clinical and Economic Review (ICER) Value-Based Price Benchmarks
		Value in Radiology
			Outcomes
			Integrated Practice Units (IPUs)
		Future Directions: A Path to Value Frameworks in Pediatric Radiology
		In This Book
		Metrics and Concepts
		References
	3 Pediatric Radiology in Resource-Limited Settings
		Epidemiological Profile of Childhood Diseases in Resource-Limited Countries
			Infectious Diseases of Poverty
			Nontransmissible Diseases in Resource-Limited Countries
				Unintentional Trauma
				Cancer
				Congenital Heart Disease
				Central Nervous System Conditions
		Pediatric Radiology in Resource-Limited Countries
			Human Resources
			Radioprotection in LMIC
			Innovative/Adaptive Use of Ultrasound
			Innovative/Adaptive Use of CT
			Innovative Digital Health Technologies: Artificial Intelligence and Telemedicine
		References
Part II: Prenatal Imaging
	4 Approach to Fetal Anomalies
		Fetal Imaging Origins and Evolution
		Epidemiology, Cost to Society
			Epidemiology
				Cost to Society
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Fetal Ultrasound Imaging: Indications and Safety
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Indications
					Safety
				Gaps in Literature
			Fetal MRI: Indications and Safety
				Summary of Evidence: MR
					Indications
					Safety
				Supporting Evidence: MR
					Indications
					Safety
						Thermal Load
						Acoustic Noise
						Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents
				Gaps in Literature
			Imaging Guidance for Fetal Surgery
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
				Gaps in the Literature
		Take Home Figures and Tables
		Key Points
		References
	5 Fetal Ventriculomegaly
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology and Disease Burden
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Prenatal Diagnosis and Screening
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence for Ultrasound
				Supporting Evidence for MRI
				Gaps in Literature
			Follow-Up Care
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
				Gaps in Literature
			Postnatal Outcomes
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
				Gaps in Literature
		Take-Home Figures and Tables
			Imaging Case Studies
			Imaging Pathway
		Key Points
		References
	6 Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
		Introduction and Background
		Role of Imaging
		Diagnostic and Prognostic Features
			Liver
			Hernia Sac
			Lung Volumes
		Associated Anomalies
		The Role of Imaging in Management
		Congenital Lung Malformations
			Introduction and Background
			The Role of Imaging
			Fetal Surgery/Intervention
			The Role of Postnatal Imaging
		References
Part III: Pediatric Oncology
	7 Pediatric Lymphoma
		Definition, Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnosis and Local Staging
				Supporting Evidence (By Modality, with Reference to Lymphoma Subtype as Appropriate)
				Anatomic Coverage: Torso Versus Whole Body FDG/PET CT Coverage
				Pediatric Lymphoma Staging Systems
			Assessment of Treatment Response
				Hodgkin Lymphoma
				Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
			Dose Reduction Strategies
			Follow-Up Care and Surveillance Imaging
				Classical Hodgkin Lymphoma
				Nodular Lymphocyte-Predominant Hodgkin Lymphoma
				Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
			Cost Effectiveness
			Gaps in the Literature
		Conclusion
		References
	8 Pediatric Germ Cell Tumor
		Definition, Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnosis and Local Staging
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality and Tumor Type)
					Radiography
					Ultrasound
					CT/MRI
					18F-FDG PET/CT
			Assessment of Treatment Response
			Follow-Up Care and Surveillance Imaging
			Cost-Effectiveness
			Gaps in the Literature
		Conclusion
		References
	9 Pediatric Brain Tumors: Role of Imaging
		Definition and Pathophysiology
			Diffuse Midline Glioma (DMG)
			Pediatric Low-Grade Gliomas (pLGG)
			Ependymoma
			Medulloblastoma
			Atypical Teratoid Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT)
			Dysembryoplastic Neuroepithelial Tumor
			Ganglioglioma
				Metastases
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Childhood Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma
					Pediatric Low-Grade Gliomas
					Ependymoma
					Medulloblastoma
					Atypical Teratoid Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT)
					Dysembryoplastic Neuroepithelial Tumor
					Ganglioglioma
					Metastases
			Follow-Up Care/Complications
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma
					Pediatric Low-Grade Gliomas
					Ependymoma
					Medulloblastoma
					Atypical Teratoid Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT)
					Dysembryoplastic Neuroepithelial Tumor
					Ganglioglioma
				The Role of Radiomics
		Key Points
		References
	10 Bone Neoplasms: Osteosarcoma and Ewing Sarcoma
		Definition, Pathophysiology
			Osteosarcoma
			Ewing Sarcoma
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnosis and Local Staging
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Radiography
					Local Staging MR
					Local Staging CT
					Percutaneous Image-Guided Biopsy
					FDG-PET/CT
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			Metastatic Disease Assessment and Evaluation of Treatment Response
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Radiography
					MR
					Advanced MR Techniques
					Whole-Body MR
					Chest CT
					Bone Scintigraphy
					FDG-PET/CT
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			Follow-Up Care
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					MR
					Chest Radiographs and CT
					Bone Scintigraphy
					FDG-PET/CT
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
		Take Home Figures and Tables
			Imaging Case Studies
			Imaging Pathway/Decision Tree
			Diagnostic Performance of Imaging Tests
			Key Points
		References
	11 Renal Neoplasms: Nephroblastoma (Wilms Tumor)
		Definition, Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Prenatal Diagnosis
			Screening
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
				Cost Effectiveness
			Initial Childhood Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance
					FDG Positron-Emission Tomography (FDG-PET)
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			Follow-Up Care
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
		Take Home Points
		References
	12 Liver Neoplasms
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Goals
		Literature Search and Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnostic Imaging of Liver Neoplasms in Pediatric Patients
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Young Children (Less Than 5 Years of Age)
					Older Children (5-18 Years of Age)
				Cost-Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			Advanced Imaging in the Assessment of Pediatric Liver Neoplasms
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Young Children (Less Than 5 Years of Age)
					Older Children (5-18 Years of Age)
				Cost-Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			Necessity of Follow-Up Imaging
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Young Children (Less Than 5 Years of Age)
					Older Children (5-18 Years of Age)
			Predisposition Syndromes and Screening
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
				Cost-Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
		Take Home Figures
		Key Points
		References
	13 Pediatric Abdominal Tumors: Neuroblastoma
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Perinatal Imaging Assessment of Adrenal Masses Detected Antenatally
		Role of Imaging in Initial Neuroblastoma Diagnosis, Surgical Planning, and Staging
		Role of Functional Imaging
		Prognostic Imaging Features in Neuroblastoma
		Imaging Features of Complications Following Treatment for Neuroblastoma
			Key Points
		References
	14 Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
		Definition, Pathophysiology
			Definition
			Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Prenatal Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
					Prenatal Diagnosis
			Initial Diagnosis of LCH
				Summary of Evidence
				Discussion by Modality
					Radiography
					Radionuclide (Tc99m) Bone Scan
					Magnetic Resonance
						Bone
						Neurological
					Whole-Body MRI
					Computed Tomography (CT)
					Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Including PET, PET-CT, and PET-MRI
					Ultrasound
					Tissue Sampling
				Cost-Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			Follow-Up Care
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Radiography
					MRI: Including Whole-Body MRI (WB-MRI)
					Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Including PET, PET-CT, and PET-MRI
				Cost-Effectiveness
			Imaging Pathway
		Diagnostic Performance of Imaging Tests
		Imaging Case Studies
		Key Points
		References
Part IV: Neurological Imaging
	15 Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy in the Full-Term Neonate
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			Follow-Up Imaging and Prognosis in Infants with HIE
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
				Gaps in Literature
		Key Points
		References
	16 Neonatal Brain Hemorrhage
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology and Clinical Presentation
			Sequelae After Grade 1-2 Germinal Matrix Hemorrhage-Intraventricular Hemorrhage
			Neurological Sequelae After Periventricular Hemorrhagic Infarct
			Neurological Sequelae After Post Hemorrhagic Ventricular Dilatation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging in Diagnosis
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Diagnostic Tests to Assess GMH-IVH
			Cost-Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
		Cerebellar Hemorrhage
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
			Cost-Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
		Imaging Role in Follow-Up Care and Complications
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
			Cost Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
		Key Points
		References
	17 Head and Neck Infections
		Introduction: General Concepts on the Role of Imaging in Pediatric Head and Neck Infections
		Literature Search Methodology
		Orbital Cellulitis
			Definition, Pathophysiology
			Epidemiology
			Clinical Presentation
				Symptoms
				Complications
			Role of Imaging in Suspected Orbital Cellulitis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
		Acute Otomastoiditis
			Definition, Pathophysiology
			Epidemiology
			Clinical Presentation of Acute Otomastoiditis
			Role of Imaging in Acute Otomastoiditis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
		Rhinosinusitis
			Definition, Pathophysiology
			Epidemiology
			Clinical Presentation of Rhinosinusitis in Children
			Role of Imaging in Cases of Rhinosinusitis
		Sialadenitis
			Definition, Pathophysiology
			Epidemiology
			Clinical Presentation of Sialadenitis in Children
			Role of Imaging in Cases Sialadenitis
		Pharyngeal and Deep Neck Infections
			Definition, Pathophysiology
			Epidemiology
			Clinical Presentation of Pharyngeal and Deep Neck Infections in Children
			Role of Imaging in Suspected Pharyngeal and Deep Neck Infections
		Key Points
		References
	18 Neuroimaging for Pediatric Headache
		Definition, Pathophysiology
			Definition
			Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation, Diagnostic Work-Up
			Epidemiology
			Diagnostic Work-Up
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging in the Management of Children with Headache
			Appropriate Neuroimaging in Children with Headache
			Cost-Effectiveness Considerations
			Imaging Case Studies
			Key Points
		References
	19 Pediatric Accidental Traumatic Brain Injury: Evidence-Based Emergency Imaging
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
			Overall Cost to Society
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnosis and Management
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Computed Tomography (CT)
						PECARN (Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network)
						CATCH (Canadian Assessment of Tomography for Childhood Head Injury)
						CHALICE (Children´s Head Injury Algorithm for the Prediction of Important Clinical Events)
			Follow-Up Imaging
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					MR Spectroscopy (MRS)
					Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
					Functional MRI (fMRI)
					Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging (SWI)
					Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
					Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
				Suggested Imaging Protocols
					CT Brain
					MRI Brain
		Research Imaging
		Future Research
		References
	20 Spine Trauma
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
			Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence by Modality
				Radiography
				Computed Tomography (CT)
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
				Vascular Imaging
				Gaps in Literature
		Key Points
		Take Home Figures
		References
	21 Imaging in the Evaluation of Children with Suspected Craniosynostosis
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Prenatal
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence by Modality
					Ultrasound (US)
					MRI
			Initial Childhood Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence by Modality
					Radiographs
					Computed Tomography (CT)
					Ultrasound
					Magnetic Resonance (MR)
					Bone Scintigraphy
				Cost-Effectiveness
			Complications
		Take-Home Figures and Tables
		Imaging Case Studies
			Suggested Imaging Protocol for Craniosynostosis
				Plain Radiographs
				CT
		Future Research
		References
	22 Evidence-Based Imaging in Suspected Child Abuse: Role of Imaging in Skeletal, Abdominal, and Head Trauma
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
			Skeletal Injury
			Abdominal Trauma
			Abusive Head Trauma
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging to Identify Fractures
			Role of Skeletal Survey and Adjunct Modalities
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
				Fractures of High Specificity
		Follow-Up Evaluation
			Summary of Evidence: Follow-Up Skeletal Surveys
			Supporting Evidence
		Cost Effectiveness
		Gaps in Literature
		Role of Imaging in Screening and Diagnosis of Abdominal Trauma
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
			Clinical Diagnosis of Abuse
			Cost Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
		Role of Imaging in Identification of Injuries to the Head and Spine
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
			Brain
			Spine
			Intracranial Findings Associated with Abuse
			Complications: Neurodevelopmental Outcomes and Imaging Correlates
			Cost Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
		Key Points/Putting It All Together
		References
Part V: Musculoskeletal Imaging
	23 Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip
		Pathophysiology of Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging: DDH in Infancy
			Initial Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Radiography
					Ultrasound
			Treatment and Follow-Up Care
				Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Ultrasound
				Radiographs
				MRI
				Follow-Up in At-Risk Infants with Normal Clinical and Ultrasound Examination
				Cost to Society
				Gaps in Literature
		Role of Imaging: DDH in Adolescence
			Initial Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Radiographs
					CT
					MRI
					Future Directions
			Follow-Up Care
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
		Take Home Figures and Tables
			Legends
			Key Points
		References
	24 Imaging of Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease in Children
		Key Points
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Clinical Presentation, and Prognosis
		Overall Cost to Society
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging in the Diagnosis of Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Plain Radiographs
				Scintigraphy
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography (CT)
				Arthrography
				MRI
		Role of Imaging to Determine the Extent of Disease and Identify Patterns of Healing and Reperfusion That Predicts Outcome
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Scintigraphy
				MRI
				Ultrasonography
		References
	25 Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis
		Issues, Pathophysiology
			Issues
			Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Overall Cost to Society
		Goals
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			What Is the Diagnostic Performance of Radiographs in the Initial Diagnosis of Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SCFE)?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
			What Are Radiographic Classification Schemes for Assessing Disease Severity?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
			What Is the Role of Imaging in Predicting a Subsequent Contralateral SCFE in Patients in Unilateral  SCFE?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
			What Is the Diagnostic Performance of Ultrasound Imaging in the Diagnosis of SCFE?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
			What Is the Role of CT in Diagnosis of SCFE and Preoperative Planning?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
			What Is the Diagnostic Performance of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in the Initial Diagnosis of Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
			What Is the Imaging Method of Choice in Suspected Avascular Necrosis Following Treatment of SCFE?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
		Case Imaging Studies
		Key Points
		References
	26 Chronic Nonbacterial Osteomyelitis
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology and Clinical Presentation
		Overall Cost to Society
		Literature Search Methodology
			Role of Imaging in Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Radiographs
					Magnetic Resonance
					Computed Tomography
					Nuclear Medicine
			Follow-Up Imaging
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Magnetic Resonance (WB-MRI)
		Key Points
		Future Research
		References
	27 Hematogenous Osteomyelitis and Septic Arthritis in Children
		Issues
		Key Points
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Overall Cost to Society
		Goals
		Methodology
		Discussion of Issues
			What Is the Diagnostic Performance of the Different Imaging Studies in Acute Hematogenous Osteomyelitis (AHOM)?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Plain Radiographs
					MR Imaging
					Nuclear Medicine Imaging
			What Is the Diagnostic Performance of the Different Imaging Studies in the Evaluation of Subperiosteal and Soft-Tissue Abscess...
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
			What Is the Diagnostic Performance of the Different Imaging Studies in Subacute and Chronic Osteomyelitis?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
			What Is the Diagnostic Performance of the Different Imaging Studies in Septic Hip Arthritis?
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Radiography
					Ultrasonography
					MR Imaging
		References
	28 Sports Injuries: Knee
		Definition, Pathophysiology, and Epidemiology
		Literature Search Methodology
		Juvenile Osteochondritis Dissecans
			Background and Demographics
			Imaging Considerations
			Impact of Imaging on Patient Management
		Patellar Instability
			Background and Demographics
			Imaging Considerations
			Impact of Imaging Findings on Clinical Decision-Making
		Anterior Cruciate Ligament Spectrum Injuries
			Background and Demographics
			Imaging Considerations
			Impact of Imaging on Patient Management
		Meniscus Pathology
			Background and Demographics
			Imaging Considerations
			Impact of Imaging Findings on Clinical Decision-Making
		Conclusion
		References
	29 Sports Injuries of the Shoulder
		Definitions and Pathophysiology
			Introduction
			Proximal Humeral and Shoulder Girdle Fractures
			Clavicular Fractures
			Glenohumeral Instability
			Anterior Instability
			Multidirectional Instability
			Labral Injuries
			Glenohumeral Internal Rotation Deficit (GIRD)
			Normal Variants That May Mimic Labral or Physeal Pathology
			Rotator Cuff Injuries
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
			Proximal Humeral and Shoulder Girdle Fractures
			Shoulder Pain with Instability
			Shoulder Pain Without Instability
		Literature Search Methodology
			Proximal Humeral and Shoulder Girdle Fractures
			Shoulder Pain with Instability
			Shoulder Pain Without Instability
			Role of Imaging in Children with Acute Shoulder Girdle Injury and Possible Fracture or Dislocation
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Radiography
					MRI
					CT
			Role of Advanced Imaging in the Evaluation of Shoulder Pain with Clinical Signs of Instability
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Clinical Exam and Radiography
					CT
					MRI
			Role of Advanced Imaging in the Evaluation of Shoulder Pain Without Instability
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Clinical Exam and Radiography
					MRI
		Take-Home Figures and Tables
			Key Points
			Imaging Case Studies
		References
Part VI: Cardiothoracic Imaging
	30 Congenital Heart Disease
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Prenatal Diagnosis and Screening
			Initial Childhood Diagnosis
			Management and Follow-Up Care
		Important Reporting Elements and Measurements
			Key Points
		References
	31 Congenital Disease of the Aortic Arch
		Definitions and Pathophysiology
			Coarctation of the Aorta (CoA)
			Hypoplasia of the Aortic Arch and Interrupted Aortic Arch (IAA)
			Vascular Rings and Aortic Arch Anomalies Associated with Tracheal Narrowing or Esophageal Compression
			Left Pulmonary Artery Sling (LPA Sling)
			Additional Congenital Anomalies of the Aortic Arch
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
			Clinical Presentation
			Coarctation of the Aorta
			Vascular Rings and Aortic Arch Anomalies Associated with Tracheal or Esophageal Compression
			Hypoplasia of the Aortic Arch (HAA) and Interrupted Aortic Arch (IAA)
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Prenatal Diagnosis and Screening
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Screening Fetal Ultrasound
					Fetal Echocardiography
					Fetal MRI
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in the Literature
			Initial Childhood Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Chest Radiograph
					Echocardiography
					Fluoroscopy
				Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA)
				Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging (CMR)
				Cardiac Catheterization
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in the Literature
			Management and Follow-up Care
				Summary of Evidence
				Surgical and Percutaneous Palliation of Coarctation of the Aorta
				Surgical Relief of Vascular Ring and Aortic Arch Anomalies Associated with Tracheal or Esophageal Compression
				Surgical Repair of Pulmonary Artery Sling
				Surgical Repair of Hypoplasia and Interruption of the Aortic Arch
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in the Literature
		Key Points
		References
	32 Premature Lung Disease
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Childhood Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Chest Radiography
				Level of Evidence: Weak to Moderate
					Chest CT
				Supporting Evidence: Moderate
					MRI Chest
					Lung Ultrasound
		Gaps in Literature
			Follow-Up Care
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
			Gaps in Literature
		Diagnostic Performance of Imaging Tests
			Imaging Case Study or Studies (Figures 1, 2, and 3)
				Imaging Pathways/Decision Tree
		Key Points
		References
	33 Congenital Tracheal Disorders in Children
		Definition, Pathophysiology
			Development of the Normal Trachea
			Anatomy and Physiology of the Airway in Children
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Prenatal Diagnosis and Screening
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Ultrasound
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Gaps in Literature
			Initial Childhood Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Radiography and Fluoroscopy
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Optical Coherence Tomography
				Gaps in Literature
			Follow-Up Care/Complications
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (By Modality)
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Gaps in Literature
		Diagnostic Performance of Imaging Tests
		Imaging Case Study or Studies
		Take-Home Points
		References
	34 Evidence-Based Imaging of Community Acquired Pneumonia in Children
		Issues
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Goals
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnosis of CAP
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Radiography
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography (CT)
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			Follow-Up Care
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Radiography
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography (CT)
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			Complications
				Summary of Evidence
				Supportive Evidence
					Radiography
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Imaging Case Studies
		Key Points
		References
	35 Pediatric Thoracic Trauma
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging in Initial Diagnosis
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Radiography
				Ultrasound (Sonography)
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Cost-Effectiveness
		Role of Imaging in Follow-Up Care
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Radiography
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance
			Cost-Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
			Key Points
		References
Part VII: Abdominal Imaging
	36 Imaging of Infantile Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
		Definition, Presentation, and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology
		Disease Burden
		Clinical Presentation and Management
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging in Cases of Suspected Pyloric Stenosis
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
		Role for Additional Testing or Follow-Up Imaging in Equivocal Cases
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
		Postoperative Imaging for Suspected Complications or Recurrence
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
		Diagnostic Performance of US for IHPS
		References
	37 Imaging of Malrotation and Midgut Volvulus
		Definition, Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Management
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging in Diagnosis
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Abdominal Radiographs
				Fluoroscopic Upper GI Series (UGI)
				Ultrasound
				Others
					CT/MR
					Laparoscopy
		Cost-Effectiveness
		Gaps in Literature
		Role of Imaging in Diagnosing Malrotation in Older Children
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
		Role of Imaging in Diagnosing Malrotation in Children with Heterotaxia
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
		Key Points
		References
	38 Intussusception in Children: Diagnostic Imaging and Treatment
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Radiographs
					Fluoroscopy
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
			Cost-Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
			Image-Guided Reduction
				Summary of the Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Fluoroscopy
					Ultrasound
					Surgical Management
			Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
			Gaps in Literature
		Role of Imaging in Cases of Recurrence
			Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
		References
	39 Imaging in the Management of Acute Appendicitis in Children
		Definition, Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Abdominal Radiography
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Cost-Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			The Role of Imaging in Follow-Up Care and Complications of Appendicitis and Appendectomy
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence by Modality
					Abdominal Radiograph
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Cost-Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
		Imaging Case Studies
			Imaging Decision Tree
		References
	40 Imaging of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Pediatric Population
		Definition, Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
			Epidemiology
			Disease Burden
			Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
		Take-Home Figures and Tables
			Diagnostic Performance of Imaging Tests
			Imaging Case Studies
			Imaging Pathway/Decision Tree
		Key Points
		References
	41 Imaging Renovascular Hypertension in Children
		Definition and Pathophysiology of Renovascular Hypertension
		Epidemiology and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging in the Initial Diagnosis of Renal Artery Stenosis
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Ultrasound (Including Doppler and Spectral Doppler)
				Renal Scintigraphy
				CT Angiography
				MR Angiography
				Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
			Gaps in the Literature
		Role of Imaging in the Management of Renal Artery Stenosis
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Percutaneous Transluminal Angioplasty
				Surgery
			Cost-Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
			Diagnostic Performance of Imaging Tests
			Imaging Case Study
		Key Points
		References
	42 Nephrolithiasis and Urinary Tract Calculi
		Definition, Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
			Epidemiology
				Clinical Findings
				Management Considerations
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Abdominal Radiography
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			Follow-Up Care
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence
					Abdominal Radiography
					Ultrasonography
					CT
					MRI
				Cost Effectiveness
				Gaps in Literature
			Complications
				Summary of the Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Ultrasound
					CT
					MRI
				Cost Effectiveness
		Take Home Figures and Tables
			Imaging Case Study
		Key Points
		References
	43 Urinary Tract Dilation
		Definition, Pathophysiology
		Classification
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging in Prenatal Diagnosis
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
				Ultrasound
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Cost Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
		Role of Imaging in Childhood
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
				Ultrasound
				Reflux Imaging: VCUG/CeVUS
				Functional Imaging (Renal Scan/ MRU)
			Cost Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
		UTD Classification Systems
			Imaging Case Studies
			Imaging Pathway/Decision Tree
			Key Points
		References
	44 Evidence-Based Imaging of Urinary Tract Infection in Infants and Children
		Definition, Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, and Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Diagnosis
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence (by Modality)
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					MRI/MR Urography
					Renal Scintigraphy (Nuclear Medicine)
					Voiding Cystourethrography (VCUG)
					Contrast-Enhanced Voiding Urosonography (ceVUS)
					Cost-Effectiveness
					Gaps in Literature
			The Role of Imaging in Follow-Up Care and Complications of UTI in Children
				Summary of Evidence
				Supporting Evidence by Modality
					Ultrasound
					CT and MRI
					Nuclear Medicine
					Voiding Cystogram (VCUG)/Contrast-Enhanced Voiding Urethrosonography (ceVUS)
			Cost-Effectiveness
			Gaps in Literature
			Imaging Case Studies
		References
	45 Testicular Torsion
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology, Disease Burden, Clinical Presentation
			Epidemiology
			Disease Burden
			Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Summary of Evidence
			Supporting Evidence
				Prenatal Diagnosis
				Initial Diagnosis
					Ultrasound
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Radionuclide Imaging
				Management and Follow-Up Care
		Diagnostic Performance of Imaging Tests
		Imaging Case Study or Studies
			Case 1
		Key Points
		References
	46 Imaging of Pediatric Blunt Abdominal Trauma
		Definition and Pathophysiology
		Epidemiology
			Clinical Presentation
		Literature Search Methodology
		Role of Imaging
			Initial Childhood Diagnosis
				Supporting Evidence
					Radiography
					Ultrasound
					CT
				Supporting Evidence by Organ
					Solid Organs
						Liver and Spleen
						Pancreas
						Kidneys and Ureters
					Hollow Viscus
						Stomach
						Duodenum
						Small Bowel, Colon, and Mesentery
						Urinary Bladder and Urethra
					Vascular
					Abdominal Wall Injuries
				Diagnostic Challenges
					Non-accidental Injury
				Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
		Follow-Up Care
		Key Points
			Case 1
			Case 2
		References
Index