Ethics and Technology

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 19
New to the Fifth Edition......Page 20
Audience and Scope......Page 21
Organization and Structure of the Book......Page 22
The Web Site for Ethics and Technology......Page 24
Note to Instructors: A Roadmap for Using This Book......Page 25
A Note to Computer Science Instructors......Page 26
Acknowledgments......Page 27
Foreword......Page 29
Scenario 1–1: Hacking into the Mobile Phones of Celebrities......Page 31
1.1 Defining Key Terms: Cyberethics and Cybertechnology......Page 32
1.1.2 Why the Term Cyberethics?......Page 33
1.2 The Cyberethics Evolution: Four Developmental Phases in Cybertechnology......Page 34
1.3 Are Cyberethics Issues Unique Ethical Issues?......Page 37
Scenario 1–3: Digital Piracy......Page 38
1.3.1 Distinguishing between Unique Technological Features and Unique Ethical Issues......Page 39
1.3.3 A Policy Vacuum in Duplicating Computer Software......Page 40
1.4.1 Perspective #1: Cyberethics as a Field of Professional Ethics......Page 42
1.4.2 Perspective #2: Cyberethics as a Field of Philosophical Ethics......Page 44
1.4.3 Perspective #3: Cyberethics as a Field of Sociological/Descriptive Ethics......Page 46
Scenario 1–4: The Impact of Technology X on the Pleasantville Community......Page 47
1.5.1 A "Disclosive" Method for Cyberethics......Page 49
1.6 A Comprehensive Strategy for Approaching Cyberethics Issues......Page 51
1.7 Chapter Summary......Page 52
Scenarios for Analysis......Page 53
Endnotes......Page 54
References......Page 55
Online Resources......Page 56
Scenario 2–1: The Case of the "Runaway Trolley": A Classic Moral Dilemma......Page 57
2.1.1 What Is Morality?......Page 59
2.1.2 The Study of Morality: Three Distinct Approaches for Evaluating and Justifying the Rules Comprising a Moral System......Page 62
2.2 Discussion Stoppers as Roadblocks to Moral Discourse......Page 65
2.2.1 Discussion Stopper #1: People Disagree on Solutions to Moral Issues......Page 66
2.2.2 Discussion Stopper #2: Who Am I to Judge Others?......Page 67
2.2.3 Discussion Stopper #3: Morality Is Simply a Private Matter......Page 69
2.2.4 Discussion Stopper #4: Morality Is Simply a Matter for Individual Cultures to Decide......Page 70
Scenario 2–2: The Price of Defending Moral Relativism......Page 71
2.3 Why Do We Need Ethical Theories?......Page 73
2.4 Consequence-Based Ethical Theories......Page 74
2.4.2 Rule Utilitarianism......Page 76
2.5 Duty-Based Ethical Theories......Page 77
Scenario 2–4: Making an Exception for Oneself......Page 78
2.5.2 Act Deontology......Page 79
Scenario 2–5: A Dilemma Involving Conflicting Duties......Page 80
2.6 Contract-Based Ethical Theories......Page 81
2.6.1 Some Criticisms of Contract-Based Theories......Page 82
2.6.2 Rights-Based Contract Theories......Page 83
2.7.1 Being a Moral Person vs. Following Moral Rules......Page 84
2.7.2 Acquiring the "Correct" Habits......Page 85
2.8 Integrating Aspects of Classical Ethical Theories into a Single Comprehensive Theory......Page 86
2.8.1 Moor’s Just-Consequentialist Theory and Its Application to Cybertechnology......Page 87
2.8.2 Key Elements in Moor’s Just-Consequentialist Framework......Page 88
Review Questions......Page 89
Scenarios for Analysis......Page 90
References......Page 91
Further Readings......Page 92
Scenario 3–1: Reasoning About Whether to Download Software from "Sharester"......Page 93
3.1.1 Some Basic Concepts: (Logical) Arguments and Claims......Page 94
3.1.3 The Basic Structure of an Argument......Page 95
3.2 Constructing an Argument......Page 97
3.3 Valid Arguments......Page 98
3.4 Sound Arguments......Page 101
3.5 Invalid Arguments......Page 103
3.6 Inductive Arguments......Page 104
3.7 Fallacious Arguments......Page 105
3.8 A Seven-Step Strategy for Evaluating Arguments......Page 107
3.9.1 Ad Hominem Argument......Page 109
3.9.3 Fallacy of Appeal to Authority......Page 110
3.9.5 Fallacy of Composition/Fallacy of Division......Page 111
3.9.7 The False Dichotomy/Either–Or Fallacy/All-or-Nothing Fallacy......Page 112
3.9.8 The Virtuality Fallacy......Page 113
Review Questions......Page 114
Endnotes......Page 115
Further Readings......Page 116
Scenario 4–1: Fatalities Involving the Oerlikon GDF-005 Robotic Cannon......Page 117
4.1 What Is Professional Ethics?......Page 118
4.1.2 Who Is a Professional?......Page 119
4.2 Do Computer/IT Professionals Have Any Special Moral Responsibilities?......Page 120
4.3 Professional Codes of Ethics and Codes of Conduct......Page 121
4.3.1 The Purpose of Professional Codes......Page 122
4.3.2 Some Criticisms of Professional Codes......Page 123
4.3.3 Defending Professional Codes......Page 124
4.3.4 The IEEE-CS/ACM Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice......Page 125
4.4.1 Do Employees Have an Obligation of Loyalty to Employers?......Page 127
4.4.2 Whistle-Blowing......Page 128
Scenario 4–2: NSA Surveillance and the Case of Edward Snowden......Page 131
4.5 Moral Responsibility, Legal Liability, and Accountability......Page 133
4.5.1 Distinguishing Responsibility from Liability and Accountability......Page 134
Scenario 4–3: The Case of the Therac-25 Machine......Page 135
4.5.3 Legal Liability and Moral Accountability......Page 136
4.6 Do Some Computer Corporations Have Special Moral Obligations?......Page 137
4.7 Chapter Summary......Page 138
Discussion Questions......Page 139
Endnotes......Page 140
References......Page 141
Further Readings......Page 142
Scenario 5–1: A New NSA Data Center......Page 143
5.1 Privacy in the Digital Age: Who Is Affected and Why Should We Worry?......Page 144
5.1.2 Are Any Privacy Concerns Generated by Cybertechnology Unique or Special?......Page 145
5.2 What Is Personal Privacy?......Page 147
5.2.3 Informational Privacy: Control over the Flow of Personal Information......Page 148
Scenario 5–2: Descriptive Privacy......Page 149
5.2.5 Privacy as "Contextual Integrity"......Page 150
5.3 Why Is Privacy Important?......Page 151
5.3.1 Is Privacy an Intrinsic Value?......Page 152
5.4 Gathering Personal Data: Surveillance, Recording, and Tracking Techniques......Page 153
5.4.2 Internet Cookies......Page 154
5.4.3 RFID Technology......Page 155
5.4.4 Cybertechnology and Government Surveillance......Page 156
5.5 Analyzing Personal Data: Big Data, Data Mining, and Web Mining......Page 157
5.5.2 Data Mining and Personal Privacy......Page 158
Scenario 5–5: Data Mining at the XYZ Credit Union......Page 159
5.6 Protecting Personal Privacy in Public Space......Page 162
Scenario 5–6: Shopping at SuperMart......Page 163
Scenario 5–7: Shopping at Nile.com......Page 164
5.6.2 Search Engines and the Disclosure of Personal Information......Page 165
5.7.1 Industry Self-Regulation and Privacy-Enhancing Tools......Page 167
5.7.2 Privacy Laws and Data Protection Principles......Page 169
5.8 A Right to "Be Forgotten" (or to "Erasure") in the Digital Age......Page 170
Scenario 5–8: An Arrest for an Underage Drinking Incident 20 Years Ago......Page 171
5.8.1 Arguments Opposing RTBF......Page 172
5.8.2 Arguments Defending RTBF......Page 173
5.8.3 Establishing "Appropriate" Criteria......Page 174
Review Questions......Page 176
Discussion Questions......Page 177
Endnotes......Page 178
References......Page 179
Further Readings......Page 180
Scenario 6–1: The "Olympic Games" Operation and the Stuxnet Worm......Page 181
6.1 Security in the Context of Cybertechnology......Page 182
6.1.2 Security and Privacy: Some Similarities and Some Differences......Page 183
6.2 Three Categories of Cybersecurity......Page 184
6.2.1 Data Security: Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability of Information......Page 185
6.2.3 Network Security: Protecting our Infrastructure......Page 186
Scenario 6–2: The "GhostNet" Controversy......Page 187
6.3.1 Deployment and Service/Delivery Models for the Cloud......Page 188
6.3.2 Securing User Data Residing in the Cloud......Page 189
6.4 Hacking and "The Hacker Ethic"......Page 190
6.4.1 What Is "The Hacker Ethic"?......Page 191
6.4.2 Are Computer Break-Ins Ever Ethically Justifiable?......Page 193
6.5 Cyberterrorism......Page 194
6.5.1 Cyberterrorism vs. Hacktivism......Page 195
Scenario 6–3: Anonymous and the "Operation Payback" Attack......Page 196
6.6.1 Information Warfare vs. Conventional Warfare......Page 197
6.6.2 Potential Consequences for Nations That Engage in IW......Page 198
Review Questions......Page 200
Endnotes......Page 201
References......Page 202
Further Readings......Page 204
Scenario 7–1: Creating a Fake Facebook Account to Catch Criminals......Page 205
7.1.1 Background Events: A Brief Sketch......Page 207
7.2 Hacking, Cracking, and Counter Hacking......Page 208
7.2.2 Active Defense Hacking: Can Acts of "Hacking Back" or Counter Hacking Ever Be Morally Justified?......Page 209
7.3 Defining Cybercrime......Page 210
7.3.2 A Preliminary Definition of Cybercrime......Page 211
7.3.3 Framing a Coherent and Comprehensive Definition of Cybercrime......Page 212
7.4 Three Categories of Cybercrime: Piracy, Trespass, and Vandalism in Cyberspace......Page 213
7.5.1 Some Examples of Cyber-Exacerbated vs. Cyber-Assisted Crimes......Page 214
7.5.2 Identity Theft......Page 215
7.6.1 Biometric Technologies......Page 217
7.6.2 Keystroke-Monitoring Software and Packet-Sniffing Programs......Page 218
7.7.2 Enhanced Government Surveillance Techniques and the Patriot Act......Page 219
7.8.1 The Problem of Jurisdiction in Cyberspace......Page 220
Scenario 7–3: A Virtual Casino......Page 221
7.8.2 Some International Laws and Conventions Affecting Cybercrime......Page 222
7.9 Cybercrime and the Free Press: The Wikileaks Controversy......Page 223
7.9.2 Are WikiLeaks’ Practices Criminal?......Page 224
7.9.3 WikiLeaks and the Free Press......Page 225
7.10 Chapter Summary......Page 226
Discussion Questions......Page 227
Scenarios for Analysis......Page 228
References......Page 229
Further Readings......Page 230
Scenario 8–1: Streaming Music Online......Page 231
8.1 What Is Intellectual Property?......Page 232
8.1.2 Why Protect Intellectual Objects?......Page 233
8.1.3 Software as Intellectual Property......Page 234
8.1.4 Evaluating a Popular Argument Used by the Software Industry to Show Why It Is Morally Wrong to Copy Proprietary Software......Page 235
8.2.1 The Evolution of Copyright Law in the United States......Page 236
8.2.2 The Fair-Use and First-Sale Provisions of Copyright Law......Page 237
8.2.3 Software Piracy as Copyright Infringement......Page 238
8.2.4 Napster and the Ongoing Battles over Sharing Digital Music......Page 239
8.3.1 Patent Protections......Page 242
8.3.2 Trademarks......Page 243
8.4 Jurisdictional Issues Involving Intellectual Property Laws......Page 244
8.5.1 The Labor Theory of Property......Page 245
8.5.2 The Utilitarian Theory of Property......Page 246
8.5.3 The Personality Theory of Property......Page 247
Scenario 8–4: Angela’s B++ Programming Tool......Page 248
8.6.1 GNU and the Free Software Foundation......Page 249
8.6.2 The "Open Source Software" Movement: OSS vs. FSF......Page 250
8.7 The "Common Good" Approach: An Alternative Framework for Analyzing the Intellectual Property Debate......Page 251
8.7.1 Information Wants to be Shared vs. Information Wants to be Free......Page 253
8.7.2 Preserving the Information Commons......Page 255
8.7.3 The Fate of the Information Commons: Could the Public Domain of Ideas Eventually Disappear?......Page 256
8.7.4 The Creative Commons......Page 257
8.8.1 The PIPA and SOPA Battles......Page 258
Scenario 8–5: Elsevier Press and "The Cost of Knowledge" Boycott......Page 259
Review Questions......Page 261
Scenarios for Analysis......Page 262
Endnotes......Page 263
References......Page 264
Further Readings......Page 265
Scenario 9–1: Anonymous and the Ku Klux Klan......Page 266
9.1 Introduction and Background Issues: Some Key Questions and Critical Distinctions Affecting Internet Regulation......Page 267
9.1.1 Is Cyberspace a Medium or a Place?......Page 268
9.1.2 Two Categories of Cyberspace Regulation: Regulating Content and Regulating Process......Page 269
9.1.3 Four Modes of Regulation: The Lessig Model......Page 270
9.2.1 Some Implications of DRM for Public Policy Debates Affecting Copyright Law......Page 272
Scenario 9–2: The Sony Rootkit Controversy......Page 273
9.3.1 Defining Spam......Page 274
9.3.2 Why Is Spam Morally Objectionable?......Page 275
9.4 Free Speech vs. Censorship and Content Control in Cyberspace......Page 276
9.4.2 Defining Censorship......Page 277
9.5.1 Interpreting "Community Standards" in Cyberspace......Page 278
9.5.2 Internet Pornography Laws and Protecting Children Online......Page 279
9.5.3 Virtual Child Pornography......Page 280
Scenario 9–3: A Sexting Incident Involving Greensburg Salem High School......Page 282
9.6.1 Hate Speech on the Web......Page 284
9.6.2 Online "Speech" that Can Cause Physical Harm to Others......Page 285
9.7.1 Defining Network Neutrality......Page 286
9.7.3 Future Implications for the Net Neutrality Debate......Page 287
9.8 Chapter Summary......Page 288
Discussion Questions......Page 289
Endnotes......Page 290
References......Page 291
Further Readings......Page 292
Chapter 10 The Digital Divide, Democracy, and Work......Page 293
Scenario 10–1: Digital Devices, Social Media, Democracy, and the "Arab Spring"......Page 294
10.1.1 The Global Digital Divide......Page 295
10.1.2 The Digital Divide within Nations......Page 296
Scenario 10–2: Providing In-Home Internet Service for Public School Students......Page 297
10.1.3 Is the Digital Divide an Ethical Issue?......Page 298
10.2 Cybertechnology and the Disabled......Page 300
10.3 Cybertechnology and Race......Page 301
10.3.2 Racism and the Internet......Page 302
10.4 Cybertechnology and Gender......Page 303
10.4.1 Access to High-Technology Jobs......Page 304
10.4.2 Gender Bias in Software Design and Video Games......Page 305
10.5.1 Has Cybertechnology Enhanced or Threatened Democracy?......Page 306
10.5.2 How has Cybertechnology Affected Political Elections in Democratic Nations?......Page 309
10.6 The Transformation and the Quality of Work......Page 310
10.6.1 Job Displacement and the Transformed Workplace......Page 311
10.6.2 The Quality of Work Life in the Digital Era......Page 313
Scenario 10–3: Employee Monitoring and the Case of Ontario vs. Quon......Page 314
Review Questions......Page 317
Scenarios for Analysis......Page 318
References......Page 319
Further Readings......Page 321
Scenario 11–1: Ralph’s Online Friends and Artificial Companions......Page 322
11.1 Online Communities and Social Networking Services......Page 323
11.1.1 Online Communities vs. Traditional Communities......Page 324
Scenario 11–2: "The Washingtonienne" Blogger......Page 325
11.1.3 Some Pros and Cons of SNSs (and Other Online Communities)......Page 326
Scenario 11–3: A Suicide Resulting from Deception on MySpace......Page 328
11.2 Virtual EnvironmentS and Virtual Reality......Page 329
11.2.1 What Is Virtual Reality (VR)?......Page 330
11.2.2 Ethical Aspects of VR Applications......Page 331
11.3.1 What Is AI? A Brief Overview......Page 335
11.3.2 The Turing Test and John Searle’s "Chinese Room" Argument......Page 336
11.3.3 Cyborgs and Human–Machine Relationships......Page 337
11.4.1 Determining Which Kinds of Beings/Entities Deserve Moral Consideration......Page 340
11.4.2 Moral Patients vs. Moral Agents......Page 341
11.5 Chapter Summary......Page 342
Scenarios for Analysis......Page 343
Endnotes......Page 344
References......Page 345
Further Readings......Page 346
Scenario 12–1: When "Things" Communicate with One Another......Page 347
12.1 Converging Technologies and Technological Convergence......Page 348
12.2 Ambient Intelligence (AmI) and Ubiquitous Computing......Page 349
12.2.1 Pervasive Computing, Ubiquitous Communication, and Intelligent User Interfaces......Page 350
12.2.2 Ethical and Social Aspects of AmI......Page 351
Scenario 12–2: E. M. Forster’s "(Pre)Cautionary Tale"......Page 352
Scenario 12–3: Jeremy Bentham’s "Panopticon/Inspection House" (Thought Experiment)......Page 353
12.3.1 Nanotechnology: A Brief Overview......Page 354
12.3.2 Ethical Issues in Nanotechnology and Nanocomputing......Page 356
12.4.1 What Is an AM?......Page 359
12.4.2 Some Ethical and Philosophical Questions Pertaining to AMs......Page 362
12.5.1 What Is Machine Ethics?......Page 366
12.5.2 Designing Moral Machines......Page 367
12.6.1 Is an ELSI-Like Model Adequate for New/Emerging Technologies?......Page 370
12.7 Chapter Summary......Page 371
Discussion Questions......Page 372
Endnotes......Page 373
References......Page 374
Further Readings......Page 376
Glossary......Page 377
Index......Page 383
EULA......Page 390