Essentials of Toxic Chemical Risk: Science and Society

Essentials of Toxic Chemical Risk: Science and Society......Page 2
Contents......Page 8
Foreword......Page 12
Preface......Page 14
Acknowledgments......Page 16
About the Author......Page 18
1.1 The Science of Toxicology......Page 19
1.2 Chemical Hazard, Risk Assessment, and Risk Management......Page 22
Study Questions......Page 27
Answers to Study Questions......Page 28
Suggested Reading......Page 30
2.1 Introduction......Page 31
2.2.1 Evaporation......Page 32
2.2.2 Dissolution......Page 34
2.2.3 Volatilization......Page 35
2.2.4 Adsorption......Page 36
2.3 Advective Transport......Page 37
2.4 Chemical Transformation......Page 39
2.5 Bioconcentration, Bioaccumulation, and Biomagnification......Page 42
2.7 The Hydrologic Cycle......Page 45
2.8 Assessing and Managing Exposure......Page 47
Study Questions......Page 49
Answers to Study Questions......Page 51
Suggested Reading......Page 53
3.2 Ethical Dilemmas and the Protection of Public Health......Page 55
3.4 The Quantal Dose–Effect Relationship: The Workhorse of Risk Assessment......Page 56
3.4.1 Analysis of Incremental Toxicity......Page 59
3.4.2 Analysis of Cumulative Toxicity......Page 60
3.5 The Graded Dose–Effect Relationship......Page 61
Study Questions......Page 66
Answers to Questions and Problems......Page 67
Suggested Reading......Page 70
4.2 Law and Loopholes......Page 71
4.3 After the Fact......Page 74
4.4 The Null Hypothesis and Statistical Power......Page 75
4.5 Proof of Causation......Page 76
4.6 Designing an Epidemiological Study: Cohort vs. Case Control......Page 78
4.7 Level I, II, and III Epidemiological Studies......Page 81
Answers to Study Questions......Page 82
Suggested Reading......Page 84
5.1 Introduction......Page 85
5.2 Designing a Toxicity Test......Page 86
5.2.2 Dose and Time Frame......Page 87
5.2.4 Statistical Power and the Cost of Toxicity Tests......Page 88
5.3.1 Acute Lethality......Page 89
5.3.3 Chronic Toxicity and Carcinogenicity Testing......Page 91
5.3.4 Reproductive Toxicity Testing......Page 92
5.3.5 Toxicity Test Design in Nonmammalian Species......Page 93
5.4 The Probit Plot......Page 94
5.5.1 Toxic Effect Frequencies Resulting from Specific Exposure Levels......Page 96
5.5.2 Threshold of Toxicity......Page 97
5.5.3 The Rate of Increase in Chemical Disease Frequency as a Function of Dose......Page 99
5.5.4 Potency and Efficacy......Page 100
5.6 Toxicity Investigations in Individual Organisms vs. Populations......Page 102
5.7.3 Skin Sensitization Test......Page 103
5.8.1 Toxicity Testing in Single Cells......Page 104
5.8.2 Use of Bacteria to Screen Chemicals for Their Potential to Cause Cancer (Carcinogenicity)......Page 105
5.8.3 Use of Cultured Mammalian Cells to Screen for Genetic Toxicity......Page 106
Study Questions......Page 107
Answers to Study Questions......Page 108
Suggested Reading......Page 110
6.1 Introduction......Page 111
6.2 Exposure and Bioavailability......Page 112
6.3 The Cell Membrane......Page 113
6.4 Elimination by the Kidneys......Page 116
6.5 Excretion, Elimination, and Weak Acids and Bases......Page 117
6.6 Biotransformations......Page 119
6.7 The Kinetics of Single-Dose Exposure: Uptake, Distribution, and Elimination......Page 125
6.8 The Kinetics of Repeated-Dose Exposure......Page 130
Answers to Study Questions......Page 133
References......Page 136
7.2 Noncancer Health Effects......Page 137
7.2.1 Organ Toxicity......Page 138
7.3 Cancer......Page 142
Answers to Study Questions......Page 150
Suggested Reading......Page 152
8.1 Introduction......Page 153
8.3 Hazard Identification......Page 154
8.4.1 Chronic Daily Intake......Page 156
8.4.2 Biomonitoring......Page 159
8.5.1 Noncancer Health Effects......Page 160
8.5.1.1 The Two Approaches......Page 161
8.5.1.2 Air Quality Index......Page 162
8.5.2 Cancer Risk......Page 163
8.5.3 Risk Calculations......Page 165
8.6.1 Uncertainty......Page 166
8.6.3 Limited Information on Chemical Toxicities......Page 167
Study Questions......Page 168
Answers to Study Questions......Page 169
Suggested Reading......Page 173
9.1 Framework for Ecological Risk Assessment......Page 175
9.2 The EPA’s Ecological Risk-Assessment Process......Page 176
9.2.1 Planning......Page 177
9.2.2 Problem Formulation......Page 178
9.2.3 Analysis Phase......Page 180
9.2.5 Risk Communication and Adaptive Management......Page 183
Study Questions......Page 184
Answers to Study Questions......Page 185
Suggested Reading......Page 186
10.2.1 Undermining Human Health......Page 187
10.2.2 Damage to the Environment......Page 188
10.3.1 Controlling Exposure......Page 189
10.4.1 Sorting Chemicals......Page 190
10.4.2 Limiting the Use of Toxic Chemicals......Page 191
10.5.1 The Toxic Substances Control Act......Page 192
10.5.2 Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA)......Page 193
10.5.3 REACH......Page 195
Study Questions......Page 199
Answers to Study Questions......Page 200
References......Page 202
Suggested Reading......Page 203