Essentials of Food Science

Preface
About the Authors
Contents
Part I: Introduction to Food Components
	1: Evaluation of Food Quality
		Introduction
		Aspects of Food Quality
			Appearance
			Texture
			Flavor
		Taste Sensitivity
		Sensory Evaluation
			Sensory Testing Procedure
			Sensory Tests
		Objective Evaluation
			Food Rheology
			Objective Measurement of Texture
		Comparison of Subjective and Objective Evaluation
		Conclusion
		Glossary
		References
	2: Water
		Introduction
		Chemistry of Water
		Specific Heat and Latent Heat of Water
		Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point
			Vapor Pressure
			Boiling Point
		Water as a Dispersing Medium
			Solution
			Colloidal Dispersion
			Suspension
		Free, Bound, and Entrapped Water
		Water Activity (Aw)
		Role of Water in Food Preservation and Shelf Life of Food
		Water Hardness and Treatments
		Beverage Consumption Ranking
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
Part II: Carbohydrates in Food
	3: Carbohydrates in Food: An Introduction
		Introduction
		Monosaccharides
			Examples of Monosaccharides
		Disaccharides
			Glycosidic Bonds
			Examples of Disaccharides
		Various Properties of Sugars
			Sweetness
			Formation of Solutions and Syrups
			Body and Mouthfeel
			Fermentation
			Preservatives
			Reducing Sugars
			Caramelization
			Sugar Alcohols
		Oligosaccharides
		Polysaccharides
			Dextrins and Dextrans
			Starch
			Pectins and Other Polysaccharides
		Conclusion
		Glossary
		Bibliography
	4: Starches in Food
		Introduction
		Starch Sources in the Diet
		Starch Structure and Composition
		Gelatinization Process in Cooking
		Factors Requiring Control in Gelatinization
		Gelation or Setting of Gelatinized Starch Pastes During Cooling
			Amylose
			Amylopectin
			Gels
		Retrogradation
		Syneresis
		Separating Agents and Lump Formation
		Modified Starches
			What Is Modified Starch and Why Is It Modified?
		Waxy Starches
		Starch Uses in Food Systems
		Cooking with Starch
			Appearance
			Use of a Double Boiler
			Tempering
			White Sauce
			Liquid
		Nutritive Value of Starch
			Resistant Starch vs. Modified Starch?
		Safety of Starches
		Conclusion
		Glossary
		References
			Bibliography
	5: Pectins and Gums
		Introduction
		Pectic Substances
			Pectins
			Pectin Gel Formation
			Pectin Sources
			Some Principles of Making Jelly
		Gums
			Seed Gums
			Plant Exudates
			Microbial Exudates
			Seaweed Polysaccharides
			Synthetic Gums
		Conclusion
		Glossary
		References
			Bibliography
	6: Grains
		Introduction
		Cereals Definition
		Structure of Cereal Grains
		Composition of Cereal Grains
		Common Cereal Grains and Their Uses
			Wheat
			Rice
			Corn
		Other Less Common Cereal Grains
			Barley
			Malt
			Millet
			Oats
			Quinoa
			Rye
			Triticale
		Non-Cereal “Flours”
		Cooking Cereals
		Breakfast Cereals
		Pasta
		Nutritive Value of Grains
		Safety of Grains
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
	7: Vegetables and Fruits
		Introduction
		Structure and Composition of Cell Tissue
		Chemical Composition of Plant Material
			Carbohydrate
			Protein
			Fat
			Vitamins
			Minerals
			Water
			Phytochemicals (more in Appendices)
		Turgor Pressure
		Pigments and Effects of Additional Substances
			Chlorophyll
			Carotenoids
			Anthocyanin
			Anthoxanthin
		Other Groups of Pigments
			Betalains
			Tannins
		Flavor Compounds
			Allium
			Brassica
			Organic Acids
			Concentrates, Extracts, Oils, Spices, and Herbs
		Vegetable Classifications
		Harvesting and Postharvest Changes
		Ripening
		Enzymatic Oxidative Browning
		Cooking Effect
			Water Retention/Turgor
			Color
			Texture
			Flavor
			Nutritive Value
		Fruits—Unique Preparation and Cooking Principles
			Fruit Preparation
			Fruit Juices and Juice Drinks
		Grading Vegetables and Fruits
		Organically Grown Vegetables and Fruits
		Biotechnology (More in Appendices)
		Irradiation
		Vegetarian Food Choices
		Labeling of Vegetables and Fruits
			Nutrition Facts
			Label Terms
		Nutritive Value of Vegetables and Fruits
			Nutrient Losses
		Safety of Vegetables and Fruits
		Conclusion
		Vegetables
			Nutri-Facts
				Update
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
Part III: Proteins in Food
	8: Proteins in Food: An Introduction
		Introduction
		Amino Acids
			General Structure of Amino Acids
			Categories of Amino Acids
		Protein Structure and Conformation
			Primary Structure
			Secondary Structure
			Tertiary Structure
			Quaternary Structure
			Interactions Involved in Protein Structure and Conformation
		Reactions and Properties of Proteins
			Amphoteric
			Isoelectric Point
			Water-Binding Capacity
			Salting-In and Salting-Out
			Denaturation
			Hydrolysis of Peptides and Proteins
			Maillard Browning
		Enzymes
		Functional Roles of Proteins in Foods
		Conjugated Proteins
		Protein Quality
		Nutrition—See More in Specific Food Commodity Chapters
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
	9: Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, and Nuts
		Introduction
		Characteristics of Meat
			Physical Composition of Meat
			Chemical Composition of Meat
				Water
				Protein
				Fat
				Carbohydrates
				Vitamins and Minerals
		Muscle Contraction in Live Animals
			Structure of the Myofilaments of Muscle
			Muscle Contraction
			Energy for Contraction
		Postmortem Changes in the Muscle
			Ultimate pH
			Aging or Conditioning of Meat
		Meat Pigments and Color Changes
		Meat-Handling Process
			USDA Inspections
			Kosher Inspection
		“What Is Kosher Food?
			Halal Certification
			Grading of Meat
			Hormones and Antibiotics
			Animal Welfare Approval
		Cuts of Meat
			Primal or Wholesale Cuts
			Subprimal Cuts
			Retail Cuts
		Cooking Meat
			Effects of Cooking on Muscle Proteins
			Effects of Cooking on Collagen
			Effect of Cooking on Fat
			Methods of Cooking
			Other Factors Significant in Cooking
		Alterations to Meat
			Processed Meat
			Curing and Smoking of Meat
			Restructured Meat
			Tenderizing, Artificial Tenderizing
		Poultry
		Fish
		Dry Beans, Peas (Legumes), and Nuts as Meat Alternatives
			Legumes
			Quorn as a Meat Alternative
			Nuts
		Nutritive Value
		Safety of Meat, Poultry, and Fish
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
	10: Eggs and Egg Products
		Introduction
		Physical Structure and Composition of Eggs
			The Whole Egg
			The Yolk
			The White
			The Shell
			Color
			Changes Due to Aging
			Abnormalities of an Egg Structure and Composition
		Egg Function
		Inspections and Grading for egg Quality
			Candling
			Letter Grades
			Air Cell
		Egg Size
		Processing/Preservation of Eggs
			Mineral Oil
			Pasteurization
			Freezing
			Dehydration
		Storing Eggs
		Denaturation and Coagulation—Definitions and Controls
		Effect of Added Ingredients on Denaturation and Coagulation
		Cooking/Baking Changes
		Egg White Foams and Meringues
		Egg Products and Egg Substitutes
		Nutritive Value of Eggs
		Safety of Eggs
			Egg White Resistance to Bacterial Growth
			USDA Sampling
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
	11: Milk and Milk Products
		Introduction
		Definition of Milk
		Composition of Milk
			Water
			Carbohydrate
			Fat
			Protein
			Vitamins and Minerals
			Classification of Milk
		Grading of Milk
		Flavor of Milk
		Milk Processing
			Pasteurization
			Homogenization
			Fortification
			Bleaching
		Types of Milk
			Fluid Milk
			Evaporated and Concentrated Milks
			Dried Milk
			Cultured Milk/Fermentation
				Buttermilk
				Cultured Buttermilk
				Sour Cream
				Yogurt
				Acidophilus Milk
				Kefir
		Other Milk Products
			Butter
			Cream
			Ice Cream
			Whey
		Cooking Applications
		Cheese
		Milk Substitutes and Imitation Milk Products
		Nutritive Value of Milk and Milk Products
			Proteins (See Previous Notes Above)
			Fats and Cholesterol
			Carbohydrates
			Vitamins and Minerals
		Lactose Intolerance
		Safety/Quality of Milk
		Marketing Milk
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
Part IV: Fats in Food
	12: Fat and Oil Products
		Introduction
		Structure and Composition of Fats
			Glycerides
			Minor Components of Fats and Oils
		Structure of Fatty Acids
			Isomerism
		Nomenclature of Fatty Acids
			Geneva or Systematic Nomenclature
				Trans-9-Octadecenoic Acid
			The Omega Naming System
		Properties of Fats and Oils
			Crystal Formation
			Polymorphism
			Melting Points
			Plastic Fats
		Composition of Dietary Fats and Oils
			Animal Fats
			Tropical Oils
			CULINARY ALERT! In part due to the fact that animal fats contain cholesterol, saturated fat and a pronounced flavor, the use of animal fat such as lard and tallow in foods has declined in favor of vegetable oils.
		Production and Processing Methods
			Deodorized Oils
			Rendered Fat
		Modification of Fats
			Hydrogenation
			Interesterification
			Acetylation
			Winterization
		Deterioration of Fats
			Hydrolytic Rancidity
			Oxidative Rancidity or Autoxidation
			Prevention of Autoxidation
		Shortening and Shortening Power of Various Fats and Oils
			Tenderization Versus Flakiness Provided by Fats and Oils
		Emulsification (see Chap. 13)
		Frying
			Smoke Point
			Changes During Frying
		Low-Fat and No-Fat Foods
		Fat Replacements
			Carbohydrate-Derived Fat Replacements
			Examples of Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers
			Fat-Derived Fat Replacements
			Examples of Fat-Based Fat Replacers
			Protein-Derived Fat Replacements
			Examples of Protein-Based Fat Replacers
		Nutritive Value of Fats and Oils
			Navigating FODMAPs
		Safety of Fats and Oils
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
	13: Food Emulsions and Foams
		Introduction
		Emulsions
			Definition
			Surface Tension
			Surface-Active Molecules
			Emulsion Formation
			Emulsifiers
			Natural Emulsifiers
			Synthetic Emulsifiers or Surfactants
			Examples of Emulsions
			Factors Affecting Emulsion Stability
		Foams
			Comparison Between Foams and Emulsions
			Foam Formation
			Foam Stability
			Foaming Agents
			The Effect of Added Ingredients on Foam Stability
			Anti-Foaming Agents and Foam Suppressants
		Other Colloidal Systems
		Conclusion
		Bibliography
	Glossary
Part V: Sugars, Sweeteners and Confections
	14: Sugars, Sweeteners, and Confections
		Introduction
		Sources of Sugar
		Roles of Sugar in Food Systems
			Sweetness
			Tenderness
			Browning
		Types of Sugars and Sugar Syrups
			Added Sugars
			Syrups (Liquids)
		Properties of Sucrose
			Solubility
			Types of Solutions
			Elevation of Boiling Point
			Formation of Invert Sugar
			Hygroscopicity
			Fermentable
		Sugar Substitutes
			High-Intensity Sweeteners
			Sugar Alcohols (Polyols)
				Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load
					Glycemic Index vs. Glycemic Load
			Novel Sweeteners
		Confections
			Major Candy Types—Crystalline and Amorphous Candies
			Factors Influencing Degree of Crystallization and Candy Type
			Ripening
		Nutritive Value of Sugars and Sweeteners
		Safety
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
Part VI: Baked Products
	15: Baked Products: Batters and Dough
		Introduction
		Classes of Batters and Dough
		Gluten
		Function of Various Ingredients in Batters and Dough
			Flour Function
			Liquids Function
			Leavening Agents Function
			Eggs Function
			Fat Function
			Salt Function
			Sugar Function
		The Leavening Process of Specific Baked Products
			Air as a Leavening Agent
			Steam as a Leavening Agent
			Carbon Dioxide (CO2) as a Leavening Agent
			Chemical Production of CO2
				Baking Soda
				Baking Powder
			Biological Production of CO2
		Ingredients in Specific Baked Products
			Yeast Bread Ingredients
			Quick Bread Ingredients
			Pastry Ingredients
			Cake Ingredients
		Mixing Methods for Various Batters and Dough
			Biscuits
			Cakes
			Muffins
			Pastries
			Summary of Mixing Pour Batters, Drop Batter
			Kneading Dough, Yeast Dough
		Baking Batters and Dough
			Altitude-Adjusted Baking
		Storage of Baked Products
		Nutritive Value of Baked Products
			Reduced-Fat and No-Fat Baked Products
		Safety Issues in Batters and Dough
			Microbial Hazards
			Nonmicrobial Hazards
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
Part VII: Aspects of Food Handling
	16: Food Preservation
		Introduction
		Food Preservation
		Heat Preservation
			Methods of Heat Transfer
			Heat Treatment Methods: Mild or Severe
				Mild Heat Treatment
				Severe Heat Treatment
					Canning
			Bottling (Hot Filling)
			The Effect of Heat on Microorganisms
			Selecting Heat Treatments
		Refrigeration Preservation
			Problems Associated with Refrigeration
		Freezing Preservation
			Freezing Methods
			Problems Associated with Freezing
			Chemical Changes to Frozen Foods
			Moisture Control in Freezing
		Dehydration
		Concentration to Preserve Food
			Methods of Concentration
			Changes During Concentration
		Added Preservatives
		Radiation to Preserve Food
			Microwave Heating
			Irradiation
			Ohmic Heating
		Induction Heating
		High-Pressure Processing
		Other Preservation Techniques
		Nutritive Value of Preserved Foods
		Safety of Preserved Foods
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
	Glossary
	17: Food Additives
		Introduction
		Definition of Food Additives
			Food Additives
		Function of Food Additives
		Legislation and Testing for Food Additives
			Delaney Clause
			Nutrition Labeling Education Act (NLEA)
		Major Additives Used in Processing
			Types of Food Ingredients
			Major Additives Used in Processing: Some Highlights—Colors, Flavors
				Colorants
			Flavoring Agents
			Sweeteners
		Nutrient Supplements in Food
			Pre- and Probiotics
			Dietary Supplements
			Functional Foods (See More in Appendices)
			Phytochemicals (See More in Appendices)
			Nutraceuticals (More in Appendices)
			Formulating a New Product with Vitamin or Mineral Addition
		Safety
		Conclusion
		Appendix
		References
			Bibliograhy
	Glossary
	18: Food Packaging
		Introduction
		Types of Packaging Containers
		Packaging Functions
		Packaging Materials
			Metal
			Glass
			Paper
			Plastic
			Other Packaging Materials
		Controlling Packaging Atmosphere
			What Is ROP?
			Cook-Chill
			Modified Atmosphere Packaging
			Controlled Atmosphere Storage and Packaging
			Sous Vide
			Vacuum Packaging
			Active Packaging Technologies
		Aseptic Packaging
		Flexible Packaging
		Freezer Packaging Protection
			Freezer Burn
			Cavity Ice
		Tamper-Evident Banding and Sleeve Labeling
		Manufacturing Concerns in Packaging
			Selection of Packaging Materials
			Migration from Packaging Materials
			Packaging Lines at Processing Plants and Foodservice Operations
		Packaging with Radio Frequency Identification Tags (RFID)
		Packaging as a Communication and Marketing Tool
		Safety Considerations and Packaging
		Government Concerns in Packaging
		Conclusion
		References
			Bibliography
			Associations and Organizations
	Glossary
	19: Food Safety
		Introduction
		Foodborne Illness
		Biological (Microbiological) Hazards to the Food Supply
			Bacteria: The Major Biological Foodborne Illness
			Viruses
			Fungi
			Mold
			Parasites
			Contamination, Spoilage
		Chemical Hazards to the Food Supply
		Physical Hazards to the Food Supply
		Food Protection Systems
		FDA (see Chap. 20)
			The FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) (also see Chap. 20)
			Food Facility Registration
			Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs)
			Contact CFSAN
		USDA Food Protection (see Chap. 20)
		The HACCP System of Food Protection: USDA
		Surveillance for Foodborne Disease Outbreaks
		Other Causes of Spoilage, Contamination
		Responsibility for Food Safety
		Sanitizing in the Workplace
		Labeling as a Means of Assuring Food Safety
			Product Dating
		Refrigerator & Freezer Storage Chart
		Allergen-Free Labeling
		Future Legislative Rule Enactment
		Conclusion
		Glossary
		References
			Bibliography
			Model Food Code
			Associations and Organizations
			Addendum
Part VIII: Government Regulation of the Food Supply and Labeling
	20: Government Regulation of the Food Supply and Labeling
		Introduction
		The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (see Chap. 19)
			FDA Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act—1938
			Amendments to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
			GRAS Substances
			Standards for Interstate Transport of Food
			Adulterated and Misbranded Food
		Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA): See Chap. 19
		The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
		State and Local Health Departments
		Additional Agencies Regulating the Food Supply
		Education and Training
		General Food Labeling
			Labels: Radio Frequency Identification Tags
		Nutrition Labeling
			FDA Modernizes Nutrition Facts Label for Packaged Foods
				Unit Changes
		Labeling for Foodservice
		Conclusion
		Glossary
		Chapter 20 Appendix
			Highlights of the Changes to the Label
				Features a Refreshed Design
				Reflects Updated Information About Nutrition Science
				Updates Serving Sizes and Labeling Requirements for Certain Package Sizes
			Understanding Food Marketing Terms
				“Natural”
				“Processed” and “Unprocessed”
				“Local”
				“Whole”
				“Organic”
			Health Claims on Food Labels
				Terms You Can Trust
		References
			Bibliography
Appendices
	Introduction
	Appendix A
		Biotechnology, GMO
			Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
	Appendix B
		Functional Foods
		Use of Functional Foods
	Appendix C
		Nutraceuticals
	Appendix D
		Phytochemicals
	Appendix E
		Medical Foods
	Appendix F
		Processed Food
			“Processed Foods” Defined
				The Continuum of Processed Foods (International Food Information Council Foundation)
				Five Types of Food and Examples (Modification of IFIC Foundation)
	Appendix G
		Brief History of Food Guides—Choosemyplate.gov
Glossary
Index