دسترسی نامحدود
برای کاربرانی که ثبت نام کرده اند
دانلود کتاب Eric Kandel PRINCIPLES OF NEURAL SCIENCE Sixth Edition
دانلود کتاب اریک کندل اصول علوم اعصاب ویرایش ششم
مشخصات کتاب
Eric Kandel PRINCIPLES OF NEURAL SCIENCE Sixth Edition
ویرایش: [6 th ed]
نویسندگان: Eric Kandel
سری:
ISBN (شابک) : 9781259642241
ناشر: McGraw Hill
سال نشر: 2021
تعداد صفحات: [1694]
زبان: english
فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود)
حجم فایل: 202 Mb
قیمت کتاب (تومان) : 74,000
در صورت تبدیل فایل کتاب Eric Kandel PRINCIPLES OF NEURAL SCIENCE Sixth Edition به فرمت های PDF، EPUB، AZW3، MOBI و یا DJVU می توانید به پشتیبان اطلاع دهید تا فایل مورد نظر را تبدیل نمایند.
توجه داشته باشید کتاب اریک کندل اصول علوم اعصاب ویرایش ششم نسخه زبان اصلی می باشد و کتاب ترجمه شده به فارسی نمی باشد. وبسایت اینترنشنال لایبرری ارائه دهنده کتاب های زبان اصلی می باشد و هیچ گونه کتاب ترجمه شده یا نوشته شده به فارسی را ارائه نمی دهد.
توضیحاتی در مورد کتاب اریک کندل اصول علوم اعصاب ویرایش ششم
استاندارد طلایی متون علوم اعصاب - با صدها تصویر کاملاً جدید و محتوای کاملاً اصلاح شده در هر فصل از عناوین اصلی Doody برای سال 2021 به روز شده است! برای بیش از 40 سال، اصول علوم عصبی به خوانندگان کمک کرده است تا ارتباط بین مغز انسان و رفتار را درک کنند. همانطور که متن معروف نشان داده است، همه رفتارها بیانگر فعالیت عصبی است و آینده عصب شناسی بالینی و روانپزشکی به پیشرفت علم عصبی بستگی دارد. این نسخه ششم از مرجع برجسته که کاملاً به روز شده است، منعکس کننده آخرین تحقیقات، دیدگاه های بالینی و پیشرفت های این زمینه است. این دیدگاه بی نظیری را در مورد وضعیت فعلی و آینده علم عصبی ارائه می دهد. این نسخه جدید دارای ویژگیهای این است: پوشش بینظیر نحوه عملکرد اعصاب، مغز و ذهن فصلهای جدید در مورد: - مبانی محاسباتی مدارهای عصبی که رفتار را واسطه میکنند - رابطهای مغز و ماشین - بخش تصمیمگیری و آگاهی بخش جدید در اصول علمی عصبشناسی زیربنای اختلالات سیستم عصبی بسیار گسترده در بخشهای مختلف مربوط به اختلالات مربوط به پوشش سیستم عصبی انسان است. بیماری و مولتیپل اسکلروزیس 2200 تصویر، شامل 300 تصویر رنگی جدید، نمودار، مطالعات رادیولوژی، و اسکن PET اصول علوم عصبی، ویرایش ششم از یک سازمان منسجم بهره میبرد که با مروری روشن از روابط متقابل بین مغز، سیستم عصبی، ژنها و رفتار شروع میشود. متن به نه بخش تقسیم میشود: بخش اول: دیدگاه کلی، مروری بر مضامین گسترده علوم عصبی، از جمله سازماندهی اولیه آناتومیکی سیستم عصبی و پایههای ژنتیکی عملکرد و رفتار سیستم عصبی ارائه میکند. بخش دوم: زیستشناسی سلولی و مولکولی سلولهای سیستم عصبی به بررسی خواص اساسی سلولهای عصبی، از جمله تولید و هدایت سیگنالهای منتشر شده میپردازد. بخش سوم: انتقال سیناپسی بر مکانیسم الکتروفیزیولوژیکی و مولکولی انتقال سیناپسی با فصل هایی در مورد تحریک پذیری عصبی، انتقال دهنده های عصبی و انتشار فرستنده تمرکز دارد. بخش چهارم: ادراک جنبههای مختلف ادراک حسی را مورد بحث قرار میدهد، از جمله اینکه چگونه اطلاعات از اندامهای اصلی حس به سیستم عصبی مرکزی منتقل و پردازش میشود. بخش پنجم: حرکت مکانیسمهای عصبی زیربنایی حرکت را در نظر میگیرد و درمان جدیدی را بررسی میکند که به چگونگی تنظیم گانگلیونهای پایه انتخاب اعمال حرکتی و یادگیری تقویتی فوری میپردازد. بخش ششم: زیستشناسی احساسات، انگیزه و هموستاز مکانیسمهای عصبی را بررسی میکند که توسط آن مناطق زیر قشری مکانیسمهای کنترل هموستاتیک، احساسات و انگیزه را واسطه میکنند. بخش هفتم: توسعه و ظهور رفتار به سیستم عصبی از تمایز اولیه جنینی تا تشکیل و حذف سیناپس ها می پردازد. بخش هشتم: یادگیری، حافظه، زبان و شناخت بخش قبلی را گسترش میدهد و مکانیسمهای سلولی ذخیره حافظه ضمنی و صریح و همچنین تصمیمگیری و آگاهی را بررسی میکند. بخش نهم: مکانیسمهای عصبی زمینهای بیماریها و اختلالات سیستم عصبی، از جمله اختلال طیف اوتیسم، صرع، اسکیزوفرنی و اضطراب را بررسی میکند.
توضیحاتی درمورد کتاب به خارجی
The gold standard of neuroscience texts―updated with hundreds of brand-new images and fully revised content in every chapter Doody\'s Core Titles for 2021! For more than 40 years, Principles of Neural Science has helped readers understand the link between the human brain and behavior. As the renowned text has shown, all behavior is an expression of neural activity and the future of both clinical neurology and psychiatry is dependent on the progress of neural science. Fully updated, this sixth edition of the landmark reference reflects the latest research, clinical perspectives, and advances in the field. It offers an unparalleled perspective on the the current state and future of neural science. This new edition features: Unmatched coverage of how the nerves, brain, and mind function NEW chapters on: - The Computational Bases of Neural Circuits that Mediate Behavior - Brain-Machine Interfaces - Decision-Making and Consciousness NEW section on the neuroscientific principles underlying the disorders of the nervous system Expanded coverage of the different forms of human memory Highly detailed chapters on stroke, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis 2,200 images, including 300 new color illustrations, diagrams, radiology studies, and PET scans Principles of Neural Science, Sixth Edition benefits from a cohesive organization, beginning with an insightful overview of the interrelationships between the brain, nervous system, genes, and behavior. The text is divided into nine sections: Part I: Overall Perspective provides an overview of the broad themes of neural science, including the basic anatomical organization of the nervous system and the genetic bases of nervous system function and behavior. Part II: Cell and Molecular Biology of Cells of the Nervous System examines the basic properties of nerve cells, including the generation and conduction of propagated signaling. Part III: Synaptic Transmission focuses on the electrophysiological and molecular mechanism of synaptic transmission with chapters on neuronal excitability, neurotransmitters, and transmitter release. Part IV: Perception discusses the various aspects of sensory perception, including how information from the primary organs of sensation is transmitted to and processed by the central nervous system. Part V: Movement considers the neural mechanisms underlying movement and examines a new treatment that addresses how the basal ganglia regulate the selection of motor actions and instantiate reinforcement learning. Part VI: The Biology of Emotion, Motivation and Homeostasis examines the neural mechanisms by which subcortical areas mediate homeostatic control mechanisms, emotions, and motivation. Part VII: Development and the Emergence of Behavior looks at the nervous system from early embryonic differentiation to the formation and elimination of synapses. Part VIII: Learning, Memory, Language and Cognition expands on the previous section, examining the cellular mechanisms of implicit and explicit memory storage, as well as decision-making and consciousness. Part IX: explores the neural mechanisms underlying diseases and disorders of the nervous system, including autism spectrum disorder, epilepsy, schizophrenia, and anxiety.
فهرست مطالب
kandel2 Eric R. Kandel (editor)_ Steven Siegelbaum (editor)_ Sarah Mack (editor)_ John Koester (editor) - Principles of Neural Science-McGraw-Hill (2021) Title Page Copyright Page Contents in Brief Contents Preface Acknowledgments Contributors Part I Overall Perspective 1 The Brain and Behavior Two Opposing Views Have Been Advanced on the Relationship Between Brain and Behavior The Brain Has Distinct Functional Regions The First Strong Evidence for Localization of Cognitive Abilities Came From Studies of Language Disorders Mental Processes Are the Product of Interactions Between Elementary Processing Units in the Brain Highlights Selected Reading References 2 Genes and Behavior An Understanding of Molecular Genetics and Heritability Is Essential to the Study of Human Behavior The Understanding of the Structure and Function of the Genome Is Evolving Genes Are Arranged on Chromosomes The Relationship Between Genotype and Phenotype Is Often Complex Genes Are Conserved Through Evolution Genetic Regulation of Behavior Can Be Studied in Animal Models A Transcriptional Oscillator Regulates Circadian Rhythm in Flies, Mice, and Humans Natural Variation in a Protein Kinase Regulates Activity in Flies and Honeybees Neuropeptide Receptors Regulate the Social Behaviors of Several Species Studies of Human Genetic Syndromes Have Provided Initial Insights Into the Underpinnings of Social Behavior Brain Disorders in Humans Result From Interactions Between Genes and the Environment Rare Neurodevelopmental Syndromes Provide Insights Into the Biology of Social Behavior, Perception, and Cognition Psychiatric Disorders Involve Multigenic Traits Advances in Autism Spectrum Disorder Genetics Highlight the Role of Rare and De Novo Mutations in Neurodevelopmental Disorders Identification of Genes for Schizophrenia Highlights the Interplay of Rare and Common Risk Variants Perspectives on the Genetic Bases of Neuropsychiatric Disorders Highlights Glossary Selected Reading References 3 Nerve Cells, Neural Circuitry, and Behavior The Nervous System Has Two Classes of Cells Nerve Cells Are the Signaling Units of the Nervous System Glial Cells Support Nerve Cells Each Nerve Cell Is Part of a Circuit That Mediates Specific Behaviors Signaling Is Organized in the Same Way in All Nerve Cells The Input Component Produces Graded Local Signals The Trigger Zone Makes the Decision to Generate an Action Potential The Conductive Component Propagates an All-or-None Action Potential The Output Component Releases Neurotransmitter The Transformation of the Neural Signal From Sensory to Motor Is Illustrated by the Stretch-Reflex Pathway Nerve Cells Differ Most at the Molecular Level The Reflex Circuit Is a Starting Point for Understanding the Neural Architecture of Behavior Neural Circuits Can Be Modified by Experience Highlights Selected Reading References 4 The Neuroanatomical Bases by Which Neural Circuits Mediate Behavior Local Circuits Carry Out Specific Neural Computations That Are Coordinated to Mediate Complex Behaviors Sensory Information Circuits Are Illustrated in the Somatosensory System Somatosensory Information From the Trunk and Limbs Is Conveyed to the Spinal Cord The Primary Sensory Neurons of the Trunk and Limbs Are Clustered in the Dorsal Root Ganglia The Terminals of Central Axons of Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons in the Spinal Cord Produce a Map of the Body Surface Each Somatic Submodality Is Processed in a Distinct Subsystem From the Periphery to the Brain The Thalamus Is an Essential Link Between Sensory Receptors and the Cerebral Cortex Sensory Information Processing Culminates in the Cerebral Cortex Voluntary Movement Is Mediated by Direct Connections Between the Cortex and Spinal Cord Modulatory Systems in the Brain Influence Motivation, Emotion, and Memory The Peripheral Nervous System Is Anatomically Distinct From the Central Nervous System Memory Is a Complex Behavior Mediated by Structures Distinct From Those That Carry Out Sensation or Movement The Hippocampal System Is Interconnected With the Highest-Level Polysensory Cortical Regions The Hippocampal Formation Comprises Several Different but Highly Integrated Circuits The Hippocampal Formation Is Made Up Mainly of Unidirectional Connections Highlights Selected Reading References 5 The Computational Bases of Neural Circuits That Mediate Behavior Neural Firing Patterns Provide a Code for Information Sensory Information Is Encoded by Neural Activity Information Can Be Decoded From Neural Activity Hippocampal Spatial Cognitive Maps Can Be Decoded to Infer Location Neural Circuit Motifs Provide a Basic Logic for Information Processing Visual Processing and Object Recognition Depend on a Hierarchy of Feed-Forward Representations Diverse Neuronal Representations in the Cerebellum Provide a Basis for Learning Recurrent Circuitry Underlies Sustained Activity and Integration Learning and Memory Depend on Synaptic Plasticity Dominant Patterns of Synaptic Input Can be Identified by Hebbian Plasticity Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellum Plays a Key Role in Motor Learning Highlights Selected Reading References 6 Imaging and Behavior Functional MRI Experiments Measure Neurovascular Activity fMRI Depends on the Physics of Magnetic Resonance fMRI Depends on the Biology of Neurovascular Coupling Functional MRI Data Can Be Analyzed in Several Ways fMRI Data First Need to Be Prepared for Analysis by Following Preprocessing Steps fMRI Can Be Used to Localize Cognitive Functions to Specific Brain Regions fMRI Can Be Used to Decode What Information Is Represented in the Brain fMRI Can Be Used to Measure Correlated Activity Across Brain Networks Functional MRI Studies Have Led to Fundamental Insights fMRI Studies in Humans Have Inspired Neurophysiological Studies in Animals fMRI Studies Have Challenged Theories From Cognitive Psychology and Systems Neuroscience fMRI Studies Have Tested Predictions From Animal Studies and Computational Models Functional MRI Studies Require Careful Interpretation Future Progress Depends on Technological and Conceptual Advances Highlights Suggested Reading References Part II Cell and Molecular Biology of Cells of the Nervous System 7 The Cells of the Nervous System Neurons and Glia Share Many Structural and Molecular Characteristics The Cytoskeleton Determines Cell Shape Protein Particles and Organelles Are Actively Transported Along the Axon and Dendrites Fast Axonal Transport Carries Membranous Organelles Slow Axonal Transport Carries Cytosolic Proteins and Elements of the Cytoskeleton Proteins Are Made in Neurons as in Other Secretory Cells Secretory and Membrane Proteins Are Synthesized and Modified in the Endoplasmic Reticulum Secretory Proteins Are Modified in the Golgi Complex Surface Membrane and Extracellular Substances Are Recycled in the Cell Glial Cells Play Diverse Roles in Neural Function Glia Form the Insulating Sheaths for Axons Astrocytes Support Synaptic Signaling Microglia Have Diverse Functions in Health and Disease Choroid Plexus and Ependymal Cells Produce Cerebrospinal Fluid Highlights Selected Reading References 8 Ion Channels Ion Channels Are Proteins That Span the Cell Membrane Ion Channels in All Cells Share Several Functional Characteristics Currents Through Single Ion Channels Can Be Recorded The Flux of Ions Through a Channel Differs From Diffusion in Free Solution The Opening and Closing of a Channel Involve Conformational Changes The Structure of Ion Channels Is Inferred From Biophysical, Biochemical, and Molecular Biological Studies Ion Channels Can Be Grouped Into Gene Families X-Ray Crystallographic Analysis of Potassium Channel Structure Provides Insight Into Mechanisms of Channel Permeability and Selectivity X-Ray Crystallographic Analysis of Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel Structures Provides Insight into Mechanisms of Channel Gating The Structural Basis of the Selective Permeability of Chloride Channels Reveals a Close Relation Between Channels and Transporters Highlights Selected Reading References 9 Membrane Potential and the Passive Electrical Properties of the Neuron The Resting Membrane Potential Results From the Separation of Charge Across the Cell Membrane The Resting Membrane Potential Is Determined by Nongated and Gated Ion Channels Open Channels in Glial Cells Are Permeable to Potassium Only Open Channels in Resting Nerve Cells Are Permeable to Three Ion Species The Electrochemical Gradients of Sodium, Potassium, and Calcium Are Established by Active Transport of the Ions Chloride Ions Are Also Actively Transported The Balance of Ion Fluxes in the Resting Membrane Is Abolished During the Action Potential The Contributions of Different Ions to the Resting Membrane Potential Can Be Quantified by the Goldman Equation The Functional Properties of the Neuron Can Be Represented as an Electrical Equivalent Circuit The Passive Electrical Properties of the Neuron Affect Electrical Signaling Membrane Capacitance Slows the Time Course of Electrical Signals Membrane and Cytoplasmic Resistance Affect the Efficiency of Signal Conduction Large Axons Are More Easily Excited Than Small Axons Passive Membrane Properties and Axon Diameter Affect the Velocity of Action Potential Propagation Highlights Selected Reading References 10 Propagated Signaling: The Action Potential The Action Potential Is Generated by the Flow of Ions Through Voltage-Gated Channels Sodium and Potassium Currents Through Voltage-Gated Channels Are Recorded With the Voltage Clamp Voltage-Gated Sodium and Potassium Conductances Are Calculated From Their Currents The Action Potential Can Be Reconstructed From the Properties of Sodium and Potassium Channels The Mechanisms of Voltage Gating Have Been Inferred From Electrophysiological Measurements Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels Select for Sodium on the Basis of Size, Charge, and Energy of Hydration of the Ion Individual Neurons Have a Rich Variety of Voltage-Gated Channels That Expand Their Signaling Capabilities The Diversity of Voltage-Gated Channel Types Is Generated by Several Genetic Mechanisms Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels Voltage-Gated Hyperpolarization-Activated Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated Channels Gating of Ion Channels Can Be Controlled by Cytoplasmic Calcium Excitability Properties Vary Between Types of Neurons Excitability Properties Vary Between Regions of the Neuron Neuronal Excitability Is Plastic Highlights Selected Reading References Part III Synaptic Transmission 11 Overview of Synaptic Transmission Synapses Are Predominantly Electrical or Chemical Electrical Synapses Provide Rapid Signal Transmission Cells at an Electrical Synapse Are Connected by Gap-Junction Channels Electrical Transmission Allows Rapid and Synchronous Firing of Interconnected Cells Gap Junctions Have a Role in Glial Function and Disease Chemical Synapses Can Amplify Signals The Action of a Neurotransmitter Depends on the Properties of the Postsynaptic Receptor Activation of Postsynaptic Receptors Gates Ion Channels Either Directly or Indirectly Electrical and Chemical Synapses Can Coexist and Interact Highlights Selected Reading References 12 Directly Gated Transmission: The Nerve-Muscle Synapse The Neuromuscular Junction Has Specialized Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Structures The Postsynaptic Potential Results From a Local Change in Membrane Permeability The Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine Is Released in Discrete Packets Individual Acetylcholine Receptor-Channels Conduct All-or-None Currents The Ion Channel at the End-Plate Is Permeable to Both Sodium and Potassium Ions Four Factors Determine the End-Plate Current The Acetylcholine Receptor-Channels Have Distinct Properties That Distinguish Them From the Voltage-Gated Channels That Generate the Muscle Action Potential Transmitter Binding Produces a Series of State Changes in the Acetylcholine Receptor-Channel The Low-Resolution Structure of the Acetylcholine Receptor Is Revealed by Molecular and Biophysical Studies The High-Resolution Structure of the Acetylcholine Receptor-Channel Is Revealed by X-Ray Crystal Studies Highlights Postscript: The End-Plate Current Can Be Calculated From an Equivalent Circuit Selected Reading References 13 Synaptic Integration in the Central Nervous System Central Neurons Receive Excitatory and Inhibitory Inputs Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses Have Distinctive Ultrastructures and Target Different Neuronal Regions Excitatory Synaptic Transmission Is Mediated by Ionotropic Glutamate Receptor-Channels Permeable to Cations The Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors Are Encoded by a Large Gene Family Glutamate Receptors Are Constructed From a Set of Structural Modules NMDA and AMPA Receptors Are Organized by a Network of Proteins at the Postsynaptic Density NMDA Receptors Have Unique Biophysical and Pharmacological Properties The Properties of the NMDA Receptor Underlie Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity NMDA Receptors Contribute to Neuropsychiatric Disease Fast Inhibitory Synaptic Actions Are Mediated by Ionotropic GABA and Glycine Receptor-Channels Permeable to Chloride Ionotropic Glutamate, GABA, and Glycine Receptors Are Transmembrane Proteins Encoded by Two Distinct Gene Families Chloride Currents Through GABA A and Glycine Receptor-Channels Normally Inhibit the Postsynaptic Cell Some Synaptic Actions in the Central Nervous System Depend on Other Types of Ionotropic Receptors Excitatory and Inhibitory Synaptic Actions Are Integrated by Neurons Into a Single Output Synaptic Inputs Are Integrated at the Axon Initial Segment Subclasses of GABAergic Neurons Target Distinct Regions of Their Postsynaptic Target Neurons to Produce Inhibitory Actions With Different Functions Dendrites Are Electrically Excitable Structures That Can Amplify Synaptic Input Highlights Selected Reading References 14 Modulation of Synaptic Transmission and Neuronal Excitability: Second Messengers The Cyclic AMP Pathway Is the Best Understood Second-Messenger Signaling Cascade Initiated by G Protein–Coupled Receptors The Second-Messenger Pathways Initiated by G Protein–Coupled Receptors Share a Common Molecular Logic A Family of G Proteins Activates Distinct Second-Messenger Pathways Hydrolysis of Phospholipids by Phospholipase C Produces Two Important Second Messengers, IP 3 and Diacylglycerol Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Compose the Second Major Family of Metabotropic Receptors Several Classes of Metabolites Can Serve as Transcellular Messengers Hydrolysis of Phospholipids by Phospholipase A 2 Liberates Arachidonic Acid to Produce Other Second Messengers Endocannabinoids Are Transcellular Messengers That Inhibit Presynaptic Transmitter Release The Gaseous Second Messenger Nitric Oxide Is a Transcellular Signal That Stimulates Cyclic GMP Synthesis The Physiological Actions of Metabotropic Receptors Differ From Those of Ionotropic Receptors Second-Messenger Cascades Can Increase or Decrease the Opening of Many Types of Ion Channels G Proteins Can Modulate Ion Channels Directly Cyclic AMP–Dependent Protein Phosphorylation Can Close Potassium Channels Second Messengers Can Endow Synaptic Transmission with Long-Lasting Consequences Modulators Can Influence Circuit Function by Altering Intrinsic Excitability or Synaptic Strength Multiple Neuromodulators Can Converge Onto the Same Neuron and Ion Channels Why So Many Modulators? Highlights Selected Reading References 15 T ransmitter Release Transmitter Release Is Regulated by Depolarization of the Presynaptic Terminal Release Is Triggered by Calcium Influx The Relation Between Presynaptic Calcium Concentration and Release Several Classes of Calcium Channels Mediate Transmitter Release Transmitter Is Released in Quantal Units Transmitter Is Stored and Released by Synaptic Vesicles Synaptic Vesicles Discharge Transmitter by Exocytosis and Are Recycled by Endocytosis Capacitance Measurements Provide Insight Into the Kinetics of Exocytosis and Endocytosis Exocytosis Involves the Formation of a Temporary Fusion Pore The Synaptic Vesicle Cycle Involves Several Steps Exocytosis of Synaptic Vesicles Relies on a Highly Conserved Protein Machinery The Synapsins Are Important for Vesicle Restraint and Mobilization SNARE Proteins Catalyze Fusion of Vesicles With the Plasma Membrane Calcium Binding to Synaptotagmin Triggers Transmitter Release The Fusion Machinery Is Embedded in a Conserved Protein Scaffold at the Active Zone Modulation of Transmitter Release Underlies Synaptic Plasticity Activity-Dependent Changes in Intracellular Free Calcium Can Produce Long-Lasting Changes in Release Axo-axonic Synapses on Presynaptic Terminals Regulate Transmitter Release Highlights Selected Reading References 16 Neurotransmitters A Chemical Messenger Must Meet Four Criteria to Be Considered a Neurotransmitter Only a Few Small-Molecule Substances Act as Transmitters Acetylcholine Biogenic Amine Transmitters Amino Acid Transmitters ATP and Adenosine Small-Molecule Transmitters Are Actively Taken Up Into Vesicles Many Neuroactive Peptides Serve as Transmitters Peptides and Small-Molecule Transmitters Differ in Several Ways Peptides and Small-Molecule Transmitters Can Be Co-released Removal of Transmitter From the Synaptic Cleft Terminates Synaptic Transmission Highlights Selected Reading References Part IV Perception 17 Sensory Coding Psychophysics Relates Sensations to the Physical Properties of Stimuli Psychophysics Quantifies the Perception of Stimulus Properties Stimuli Are Represented in the Nervous System by the Firing Patterns of Neurons Sensory Receptors Respond to Specific Classes of Stimulus Energy Multiple Subclasses of Sensory Receptors Are Found in Each Sense Organ Receptor Population Codes Transmit Sensory Information to the Brain Sequences of Action Potentials Signal the Temporal Dynamics of Stimuli The Receptive Fields of Sensory Neurons Provide Spatial Information About Stimulus Location Central Nervous System Circuits Refine Sensory Information The Receptor Surface Is Represented Topographically in the Early Stages of Each Sensory System Sensory Information Is Processed in Parallel Pathways in the Cerebral Cortex Feedback Pathways From the Brain Regulate Sensory Coding Mechanisms Top-Down Learning Mechanisms Influence Sensory Processing Highlights Selected Reading References 18 Receptors of the Somatosensory System Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons Are the Primary Sensory Receptor Cells of the Somatosensory System Peripheral Somatosensory Nerve Fibers Conduct Action Potentials at Different Rates A Variety of Specialized Receptors Are Employed by the Somatosensory System Mechanoreceptors Mediate Touch and Proprioception Specialized End Organs Contribute to Mechanosensation Proprioceptors Measure Muscle Activity and Joint Positions Thermal Receptors Detect Changes in Skin Temperature Nociceptors Mediate Pain Itch Is a Distinctive Cutaneous Sensation Visceral Sensations Represent the Status of Internal Organs Action Potential Codes Transmit Somatosensory Information to the Brain Sensory Ganglia Provide a Snapshot of Population Responses to Somatic Stimuli Somatosensory Information Enters the Central Nervous System Via Spinal or Cranial Nerves Highlights Selected Reading References 19 Touch Active and Passive Touch Have Distinct Goals The Hand Has Four Types of Mechanoreceptors A Cell's Receptive Field Defines Its Zone of Tactile Sensitivity Two-Point Discrimination Tests Measure Tactile Acuity Slowly Adapting Fibers Detect Object Pressure and Form Rapidly Adapting Fibers Detect Motion and Vibration Both Slowly and Rapidly Adapting Fibers Are Important for Grip Control Tactile Information Is Processed in the Central Touch System Spinal, Brain Stem, and Thalamic Circuits Segregate Touch and Proprioception The Somatosensory Cortex Is Organized Into Functionally Specialized Columns Cortical Columns Are Organized Somatotopically The Receptive Fields of Cortical Neurons Integrate Information From Neighboring Receptors Touch Information Becomes Increasingly Abstract in Successive Central Synapses Cognitive Touch Is Mediated by Neurons in the Secondary Somatosensory Cortex Active Touch Engages Sensorimotor Circuits in the Posterior Parietal Cortex Lesions in Somatosensory Areas of the Brain Produce Specific Tactile Deficits Highlights Selected Reading References 20 Pain Noxious Insults Activate Thermal, Mechanical, and Polymodal Nociceptors Signals From Nociceptors Are Conveyed to Neurons in the Dorsal Horn of the Spinal Cord Hyperalgesia Has Both Peripheral and Central Origins Four Major Ascending Pathways Convey Nociceptive Information From the Spinal Cord to the Brain Several Thalamic Nuclei Relay Nociceptive Information to the Cerebral Cortex The Perception of Pain Arises From and Can Be Controlled by Cortical Mechanisms Anterior Cingulate and Insular Cortex Are Associated With the Perception of Pain Pain Perception Is Regulated by a Balance of Activity in Nociceptive and Nonnociceptive Afferent Fibers Electrical Stimulation of the Brain Produces Analgesia Opioid Peptides Contribute to Endogenous Pain Control Endogenous Opioid Peptides and Their Receptors Are Distributed in Pain-Modulatory Systems Morphine Controls Pain by Activating Opioid Receptors Tolerance to and Dependence on Opioids Are Distinct Phenomena Highlights Selected Reading References 21 The Constructive Nature of Visual Processing Visual Perception Is a Constructive Process Visual Processing Is Mediated by the Geniculostriate Pathway Form, Color, Motion, and Depth Are Processed in Discrete Areas of the Cerebral Cortex The Receptive Fields of Neurons at Successive Relays in the Visual Pathway Provide Clues to How the Brain Analyzes Visual Form The Visual Cortex Is Organized Into Columns of Specialized Neurons Intrinsic Cortical Circuits Transform Neural Information Visual Information Is Represented by a Variety of Neural Codes Highlights Selected Reading References 22 Low-Level Visual Processing: The Retina The Photoreceptor Layer Samples the Visual Image Ocular Optics Limit the Quality of the Retinal Image There Are Two Types of Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones Phototransduction Links the Absorption of a Photon to a Change in Membrane Conductance Light Activates Pigment Molecules in the Photoreceptors Excited Rhodopsin Activates a Phosphodiesterase Through the G Protein Transducin Multiple Mechanisms Shut Off the Cascade Defects in Phototransduction Cause Disease Ganglion Cells Transmit Neural Images to the Brain The Two Major Types of Ganglion Cells Are ON Cells and OFF Cells Many Ganglion Cells Respond Strongly to Edges in the Image The Output of Ganglion Cells Emphasizes Temporal Changes in Stimuli Retinal Output Emphasizes Moving Objects Several Ganglion Cell Types Project to the Brain Through Parallel Pathways A Network of Interneurons Shapes the Retinal Output Parallel Pathways Originate in Bipolar Cells Spatial Filtering Is Accomplished by Lateral Inhibition Temporal Filtering Occurs in Synapses and Feedback Circuits Color Vision Begins in Cone-Selective Circuits Congenital Color Blindness Takes Several Forms Rod and Cone Circuits Merge in the Inner Retina The Retina's Sensitivity Adapts to Changes in Illumination Light Adaptation Is Apparent in Retinal Processing and Visual Perception Multiple Gain Controls Occur Within the Retina Light Adaptation Alters Spatial Processing Highlights Selected Reading References 23 Intermediate-Level Visual Processing and Visual Primitives Internal Models of Object Geometry Help the Brain Analyze Shapes Depth Perception Helps Segregate Objects From Background Local Movement Cues Define Object Trajectory and Shape Context Determines the Perception of Visual Stimuli Brightness and Color Perception Depend on Context Receptive-Field Properties Depend on Context Cortical Connections, Functional Architecture, and Perception Are Intimately Related Perceptual Learning Requires Plasticity in Cortical Connections Visual Search Relies on the Cortical Representation of Visual Attributes and Shapes Cognitive Processes Influence Visual Perception Highlights Selected Reading References 24 High-Level Visual Processing: From Vision to Cognition High-Level Visual Processing Is Concerned With Object Recognition The Inferior Temporal Cortex Is the Primary Center for Object Recognition Clinical Evidence Identifies the Inferior Temporal Cortex as Essential for Object Recognition Neurons in the Inferior Temporal Cortex Encode Complex Visual Stimuli and Are Organized in Functionally Specialized Columns The Primate Brain Contains Dedicated Systems for Face Processing The Inferior Temporal Cortex Is Part of a Network of Cortical Areas Involved in Object Recognition Object Recognition Relies on Perceptual Constancy Categorical Perception of Objects Simplifies Behavior Visual Memory Is a Component of High-Level Visual Processing Implicit Visual Learning Leads to Changes in the Selectivity of Neuronal Responses The Visual System Interacts With Working Memory and Long-Term Memory Systems Associative Recall of Visual Memories Depends on Top-Down Activation of the Cortical Neurons That Process Visual Stimuli Highlights Selected Reading References 25 Visual Processing for Attention and Action The Brain Compensates for Eye Movements to Create a Stable Representation of the Visual World Motor Commands for Saccades Are Copied to the Visual System Oculomotor Proprioception Can Contribute to Spatially Accurate Perception and Behavior Visual Scrutiny Is Driven by Attention and Arousal Circuits The Parietal Cortex Provides Visual Information to the Motor System Highlights Selected Reading References 26 Auditory Processing by the Cochlea The Ear Has Three Functional Parts Hearing Commences With the Capture of Sound Energy by the Ear The Hydrodynamic and Mechanical Apparatus of the Cochlea Delivers Mechanical Stimuli to the Receptor Cells The Basilar Membrane Is a Mechanical Analyzer of Sound Frequency The Organ of Corti Is the Site of Mechanoelectrical Transduction in the Cochlea Hair Cells Transform Mechanical Energy Into Neural Signals Deflection of the Hair Bundle Initiates Mechanoelectrical Transduction Mechanical Force Directly Opens Transduction Channels Direct Mechanoelectrical Transduction Is Rapid Deafness Genes Provide Components of the Mechanotransduction Machinery Dynamic Feedback Mechanisms Determine the Sensitivity of the Hair Cells Hair Cells Are Tuned to Specific Stimulus Frequencies Hair Cells Adapt to Sustained Stimulation Sound Energy Is Mechanically Amplified in the Cochlea Cochlear Amplification Distorts Acoustic Inputs The Hopf Bifurcation Provides a General Principle for Sound Detection Hair Cells Use Specialized Ribbon Synapses Auditory Information Flows Initially Through the Cochlear Nerve Bipolar Neurons in the Spiral Ganglion Innervate Cochlear Hair Cells Cochlear Nerve Fibers Encode Stimulus Frequency and Level Sensorineural Hearing Loss Is Common but Is Amenable to Treatment Highlights Selected Reading References 27 The Vestibular System The Vestibular Labyrinth in the Inner Ear Contains Five Receptor Organs Hair Cells Transduce Acceleration Stimuli Into Receptor Potentials The Semicircular Canals Sense Head Rotation The Otolith Organs Sense Linear Accelerations Central Vestibular Nuclei Integrate Vestibular, Visual, Proprioceptive, and Motor Signals The Vestibular Commissural System Communicates Bilateral Information Combined Semicircular Canal and Otolith Signals Improve Inertial Sensing and Decrease Ambiguity of Translation Versus Tilt Vestibular Signals Are a Critical Component of Head Movement Control Vestibulo-Ocular Reflexes Stabilize the Eyes When the Head Moves The Rotational Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex Compensates for Head Rotation The Translational Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex Compensates for Linear Motion and Head Tilts Vestibulo-Ocular Reflexes Are Supplemented by Optokinetic Responses The Cerebellum Adjusts the Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex The Thalamus and Cortex Use Vestibular Signals for Spatial Memory and Cognitive and Perceptual Functions Vestibular Information Is Present in the Thalamus Vestibular Information Is Widespread in the Cortex Vestibular Signals Are Essential for Spatial Orientation and Spatial Navigation Clinical Syndromes Elucidate Normal Vestibular Function Caloric Irrigation as a Vestibular Diagnostic Tool Bilateral Vestibular Hypofunction Interferes With Normal Vision Highlights Selected Reading References 28 Auditory Processing by the Central Nervous System Sounds Convey Multiple Types of Information to Hearing Animals The Neural Representation of Sound in Central Pathways Begins in the Cochlear Nuclei The Cochlear Nerve Delivers Acoustic Information in Parallel Pathways to the Tonotopically Organized Cochlear Nuclei The Ventral Cochlear Nucleus Extracts Temporal and Spectral Information About Sounds The Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus Integrates Acoustic With Somatosensory Information in Making Use of Spectral Cues for Localizing Sounds The Superior Olivary Complex in Mammals Contains Separate Circuits for Detecting Interaural Time and Intensity Differences The Medial Superior Olive Generates a Map of Interaural Time Differences The Lateral Superior Olive Detects Interaural Intensity Differences The Superior Olivary Complex Provides Feedback to the Cochlea Ventral and Dorsal Nuclei of the Lateral Lemniscus Shape Responses in the Inferior Colliculus With Inhibition Afferent Auditory Pathways Converge in the Inferior Colliculus Sound Location Information From the Inferior Colliculus Creates a Spatial Map of Sound in the Superior Colliculus The Inferior Colliculus Transmits Auditory Information to the Cerebral Cortex Stimulus Selectivity Progressively Increases Along the Ascending Pathway The Auditory Cortex Maps Numerous Aspects of Sound A Second Sound-Localization Pathway From the Inferior Colliculus Involves the Cerebral Cortex in Gaze Control Auditory Circuits in the Cerebral Cortex Are Segregated Into Separate Processing Streams The Cerebral Cortex Modulates Sensory Processing in Subcortical Auditory Areas The Cerebral Cortex Forms Complex Sound Representations The Auditory Cortex Uses Temporal and Rate Codes to Represent Time-Varying Sounds Primates Have Specialized Cortical Neurons That Encode Pitch and Harmonics Insectivorous Bats Have Cortical Areas Specialized for Behaviorally Relevant Features of Sound The Auditory Cortex Is Involved in Processing Vocal Feedback During Speaking Highlights Selected Reading References 29 Smell and Taste: The Chemical Senses A Large Family of Olfactory Receptors Initiate the Sense of Smell Mammals Share a Large Family of Odorant Receptors Different Combinations of Receptors Encode Different Odorants Olfactory Information Is Transformed Along the Pathway to the Brain Odorants Are Encoded in the Nose by Dispersed Neurons Sensory Inputs in the Olfactory Bulb Are Arranged by Receptor Type The Olfactory Bulb Transmits Information to the Olfactory Cortex Output From the Olfactory Cortex Reaches Higher Cortical and Limbic Areas Olfactory Acuity Varies in Humans Odors Elicit Characteristic Innate Behaviors Pheromones Are Detected in Two Olfactory Structures Invertebrate Olfactory Systems Can Be Used to Study Odor Coding and Behavior Olfactory Cues Elicit Stereotyped Behaviors and Physiological Responses in the Nematode Strategies for Olfaction Have Evolved Rapidly The Gustatory System Controls the Sense of Taste Taste Has Five Submodalities That Reflect Essential Dietary Requirements Tastant Detection Occurs in Taste Buds Each Taste Modality Is Detected by Distinct Sensory Receptors and Cells Gustatory Information Is Relayed From the Periphery to the Gustatory Cortex Perception of Flavor Depends on Gustatory, Olfactory, and Somatosensory Inputs Insects Have Modality-Specific Taste Cells That Drive Innate Behaviors Highlights Selected Reading References Part V Movement 30 Principles of Sensorimotor Control The Control of Movement Poses Challenges for the Nervous System Actions Can Be Controlled Voluntarily, Rhythmically, or Reflexively Motor Commands Arise Through a Hierarchy of Sensorimotor Processes Motor Signals Are Subject to Feedforward and Feedback Control Feedforward Control Is Required for Rapid Movements Feedback Control Uses Sensory Signals to Correct Movements Estimation of the Body's Current State Relies on Sensory and Motor Signals Prediction Can Compensate for Sensorimotor Delays Sensory Processing Can Differ for Action and Perception Motor Plans Translate Tasks Into Purposeful Movement Stereotypical Patterns Are Employed in Many Movements Motor Planning Can Be Optimal at Reducing Costs Optimal Feedback Control Corrects for Errors in a Task-Dependent Manner Multiple Processes Contribute to Motor Learning Error-Based Learning Involves Adapting Internal Sensorimotor Models Skill Learning Relies on Multiple Processes for Success Sensorimotor Representations Constrain Learning Highlights Selected Reading References 31 The Motor Unit and Muscle Action The Motor Unit Is the Elementary Unit of Motor Control A Motor Unit Consists of a Motor Neuron and Multiple Muscle Fibers The Properties of Motor Units Vary Physical Activity Can Alter Motor Unit Properties Muscle Force Is Controlled by the Recruitment and Discharge Rate of Motor Units The Input–Output Properties of Motor Neurons Are Modified by Input From the Brain Stem Muscle Force Depends on the Structure of Muscle The Sarcomere Is the Basic Organizational Unit of Contractile Proteins Noncontractile Elements Provide Essential Structural Support Contractile Force Depends on Muscle Fiber Activation, Length, and Velocity Muscle Torque Depends on Musculoskeletal Geometry Different Movements Require Different Activation Strategies Contraction Velocity Can Vary in Magnitude and Direction Movements Involve the Coordination of Many Muscles Muscle Work Depends on the Pattern of Activation Highlights Selected Reading References 32 Sensory-Motor Integration in the Spinal Cord Reflex Pathways in the Spinal Cord Produce Coordinated Patterns of Muscle Contraction The Stretch Reflex Acts to Resist the Lengthening of a Muscle Neuronal Networks in the Spinal Cord Contribute to the Coordination of Reflex Responses The Stretch Reflex Involves a Monosynaptic Pathway Gamma Motor Neurons Adjust the Sensitivity of Muscle Spindles The Stretch Reflex Also Involves Polysynaptic Pathways Golgi Tendon Organs Provide Force-Sensitive Feedback to the Spinal Cord Cutaneous Reflexes Produce Complex Movements That Serve Protective and Postural Functions Convergence of Sensory Inputs on Interneurons Increases the Flexibility of Reflex Contributions to Movement Sensory Feedback and Descending Motor Commands Interact at Common Spinal Neurons to Produce Voluntary Movements Muscle Spindle Sensory Afferent Activity Reinforces Central Commands for Movements Through the Ia Monosynaptic Reflex Pathway Modulation of Ia inhibitory Interneurons and Renshaw Cells by Descending Inputs Coordinate Muscle Activity at Joints Transmission in Reflex Pathways May Be Facilitated or Inhibited by Descending Motor Commands Descending Inputs Modulate Sensory Input to the Spinal Cord by Changing the Synaptic Efficiency of Primary Sensory Fibers Part of the Descending Command for Voluntary Movements Is Conveyed Through Spinal Interneurons Propriospinal Neurons in the C3–C4 Segments Mediate Part of the Corticospinal Command for Movement of the Upper Limb Neurons in Spinal Reflex Pathways Are Activated Prior to Movement Proprioceptive Reflexes Play an Important Role in Regulating Both Voluntary and Automatic Movements Spinal Reflex Pathways Undergo Long-Term Changes Damage to the Central Nervous System Produces Characteristic Alterations in Reflex Responses Interruption of Descending Pathways to the Spinal Cord Frequently Produces Spasticity Lesion of the Spinal Cord in Humans Leads to a Period of Spinal Shock Followed by Hyperreflexia Highlights Selected Reading References 33 Locomotion Locomotion Requires the Production of a Precise and Coordinated Pattern of Muscle Activation The Motor Pattern of Stepping Is Organized at the Spinal Level The Spinal Circuits Responsible for Locomotion Can Be Modified by Experience Spinal Locomotor Networks Are Organized Into Rhythm- and Pattern-Generation Circuits Somatosensory Inputs From Moving Limbs Modulate Locomotion Proprioception Regulates the Timing and Amplitude of Stepping Mechanoreceptors in the Skin Allow Stepping to Adjust to Unexpected Obstacles Supraspinal Structures Are Responsible for Initiation and Adaptive Control of Stepping Midbrain Nuclei Initiate and Maintain Locomotion and Control Speed Midbrain Nuclei That Initiate Locomotion Project to Brain Stem Neurons The Brain Stem Nuclei Regulate Posture During Locomotion Visually Guided Locomotion Involves the Motor Cortex Planning of Locomotion Involves the Posterior Parietal Cortex The Cerebellum Regulates the Timing and Intensity of Descending Signals The Basal Ganglia Modify Cortical and Brain Stem Circuits Computational Neuroscience Provides Insights Into Locomotor Circuits Neuronal Control of Human Locomotion Is Similar to That of Quadrupeds Highlights Suggested Reading References 34 V oluntary Movement: Motor Cortices Voluntary Movement Is the Physical Manifestation of an Intention to Act Theoretical Frameworks Help Interpret Behavior and the Neural Basis of Voluntary Control Many Frontal and Parietal Cortical Regions Are Involved in Voluntary Control Descending Motor Commands Are Principally Transmitted by the Corticospinal Tract Imposing a Delay Period Before the Onset of Movement Isolates the Neural Activity Associated With Planning From That Associated With Executing the Action Parietal Cortex Provides Information About the World and the Body for State Estimation to Plan and Execute Motor Actions The Parietal Cortex Links Sensory Information to Motor Actions Body Position and Motion Are Represented in Several Areas of Posterior Parietal Cortex Spatial Goals Are Represented in Several Areas of Posterior Parietal Cortex Internally Generated Feedback May Influence Parietal Cortex Activity Premotor Cortex Supports Motor Selection and Planning Medial Premotor Cortex Is Involved in the Contextual Control of Voluntary Actions Dorsal Premotor Cortex Is Involved in Planning Sensory-Guided Movement of the Arm Dorsal Premotor Cortex Is Involved in Applying Rules (Associations) That Govern Behavior Ventral Premotor Cortex Is Involved in Planning Motor Actions of the Hand Premotor Cortex May Contribute to Perceptual Decisions That Guide Motor Actions Several Cortical Motor Areas Are Active When the Motor Actions of Others Are Being Observed Many Aspects of Voluntary Control Are Distributed Across Parietal and Premotor Cortex The Primary Motor Cortex Plays an Important Role in Motor Execution The Primary Motor Cortex Includes a Detailed Map of the Motor Periphery Some Neurons in the Primary Motor Cortex Project Directly to Spinal Motor Neurons Activity in the Primary Motor Cortex Reflects Many Spatial and Temporal Features of Motor Output Primary Motor Cortical Activity Also Reflects Higher-Order Features of Movement Sensory Feedback Is Transmitted Rapidly to the Primary Motor Cortex and Other Cortical Regions The Primary Motor Cortex Is Dynamic and Adaptable Highlights Selected Reading References 35 The Control of Gaze The Eye Is Moved by the Six Extraocular Muscles Eye Movements Rotate the Eye in the Orbit The Six Extraocular Muscles Form Three Agonist–Antagonist Pairs Movements of the Two Eyes Are Coordinated The Extraocular Muscles Are Controlled by Three Cranial Nerves Six Neuronal Control Systems Keep the Eyes on Target An Active Fixation System Holds the Fovea on a Stationary Target The Saccadic System Points the Fovea Toward Objects of Interest The Motor Circuits for Saccades Lie in the Brain Stem Horizontal Saccades Are Generated in the Pontine Reticular Formation Vertical Saccades Are Generated in the Mesencephalic Reticular Formation Brain Stem Lesions Result in Characteristic Deficits in Eye Movements Saccades Are Controlled by the Cerebral Cortex Through the Superior Colliculus The Superior Colliculus Integrates Visual and Motor Information into Oculomotor Signals for the Brain Stem The Rostral Superior Colliculus Facilitates Visual Fixation The Basal Ganglia and Two Regions of Cerebral Cortex Control the Superior Colliculus The Control of Saccades Can Be Modified by Experience Some Rapid Gaze Shifts Require Coordinated Head and Eye Movements The Smooth-Pursuit System Keeps Moving Targets on the Fovea The Vergence System Aligns the Eyes to Look at Targets at Different Depths Highlights Selected Reading References 36 Posture Equilibrium and Orientation Underlie Posture Control Postural Equilibrium Controls the Body's Center of Mass Postural Orientation Anticipates Disturbances to Balance Postural Responses and Anticipatory Postural Adjustments Use Stereotyped Strategies and Synergies Automatic Postural Responses Compensate for Sudden Disturbances Anticipatory Postural Adjustments Compensate for Voluntary Movement Posture Control Is Integrated With Locomotion Somatosensory, Vestibular, and Visual Information Must Be Integrated and Interpreted to Maintain Posture Somatosensory Signals Are Important for Timing and Direction of Automatic Postural Responses Vestibular Information Is Important for Balance on Unstable Surfaces and During Head Movements Visual Inputs Provide the Postural System With Orientation and Motion Information Information From a Single Sensory Modality Can Be Ambiguous The Postural Control System Uses a Body Schema That Incorporates Internal Models for Balance Control of Posture Is Task Dependent Task Requirements Determine the Role of Each Sensory System in Postural Equilibrium and Orientation Control of Posture Is Distributed in the Nervous System Spinal Cord Circuits Are Sufficient for Maintaining Antigravity Support but Not Balance The Brain Stem and Cerebellum Integrate Sensory Signals for Posture The Spinocerebellum and Basal Ganglia Are Important in Adaptation of Posture Cerebral Cortex Centers Contribute to Postural Control Highlights Suggested Reading References 37 The Cerebellum Damage of the Cerebellum Causes Distinctive Symptoms and Signs Damage Results in Characteristic Abnormalities of Movement and Posture Damage Affects Specific Sensory and Cognitive Abilities The Cerebellum Indirectly Controls Movement Through Other Brain Structures The Cerebellar Cortex Comprises Repeating Functional Units Having the Same Basic Microcircuit The Cerebellar Cortex Is Organized Into Three Functionally Specialized Layers The Climbing-Fiber and Mossy-Fiber Afferent Systems Encode and Process Information Differently The Cerebellum Is a Large Subcortical Brain Structure The Cerebellum Connects With the Cerebral Cortex Through Recurrent Loops Different Movements Are Controlled by Functional Longitudinal Zones The Cerebellar Microcircuit Architecture Suggests a Canonical Computation The Cerebellum Is Hypothesized to Perform Several General Computational Functions The Cerebellum Contributes to Feedforward Sensorimotor Control The Cerebellum Incorporates an Internal Model of the Motor Apparatus The Cerebellum Integrates Sensory Inputs and Corollary Discharge The Cerebellum Contributes to Timing Control The Cerebellum Participates in Motor Skill Learning Climbing-Fiber Activity Changes the Synaptic Efficacy of Parallel Fibers The Cerebellum Is Necessary for Motor Learning in Several Different Movement Systems Learning Occurs at Several Sites in the Cerebellum Highlights Selected Reading References 38 The Basal Ganglia The Basal Ganglia Network Consists of Three Principal Input Nuclei, Two Main Output Nuclei, and One Intrinsic Nucleus The Striatum, Subthalamic Nucleus, and Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta/Ventral Tegmental Area Are the Three Principal Input Nuclei of the Basal Ganglia The Substantia Nigra Pars Reticulata and the Internal Globus Pallidus Are the Two Principal Output Nuclei of the Basal Ganglia The External Globus Pallidus Is Mostly an Intrinsic Structure of the Basal Ganglia The Internal Circuitry of the Basal Ganglia Regulates How the Components Interact The Traditional Model of the Basal Ganglia Emphasizes Direct and Indirect Pathways Detailed Anatomical Analyses Reveal a More Complex Organization Basal Ganglia Connections With External Structures Are Characterized by Reentrant Loops Inputs Define Functional Territories in the Basal Ganglia Output Neurons Project to the External Structures That Provide Input Reentrant Loops Are a Cardinal Principle of Basal Ganglia Circuitry Physiological Signals Provide Further Clues to Function in the Basal Ganglia The Striatum and Subthalamic Nucleus Receive Signals Mainly from the Cerebral Cortex, Thalamus, and Ventral Midbrain Ventral Midbrain Dopamine Neurons Receive Input From External Structures and Other Basal Ganglia Nuclei Disinhibition Is the Final Expression of Basal Ganglia Output Throughout Vertebrate Evolution, the Basal Ganglia Have Been Highly Conserved Action Selection Is a Recurring Theme in Basal Ganglia Research All Vertebrates Face the Challenge of Choosing One Behavior From Several Competing Options Selection Is Required for Motivational, Affective, Cognitive, and Sensorimotor Processing The Neural Architecture of the Basal Ganglia Is Configured to Make Selections Intrinsic Mechanisms in the Basal Ganglia Promote Selection Selection Function of the Basal Ganglia Questioned Reinforcement Learning Is an Inherent Property of a Selection Architecture Intrinsic Reinforcement Is Mediated by Phasic Dopamine Signaling Within the Basal Ganglia Nuclei Extrinsic Reinforcement Could Bias Selection by Operating in Afferent Structures Behavioral Selection in the Basal Ganglia Is Under Goal-Directed and Habitual Control Diseases of the Basal Ganglia May Involve Disorders of Selection A Selection Mechanism Is Likely to Be Vulnerable to Several Potential Malfunctions Parkinson Disease Can Be Viewed in Part as a Failure to Select Sensorimotor Options Huntington Disease May Reflect a Functional Imbalance Between the Direct and Indirect Pathways Schizophrenia May Be Associated With a General Failure to Suppress Nonselected Options Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Tourette Syndrome May Also Be Characterized by Intrusions of Nonselected Options Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Reflects the Presence of Pathologically Dominant Options Addictions Are Associated With Disorders of Reinforcement Mechanisms and Habitual Goals Highlights Suggested Reading References 39 Brain–Machine Interfaces BMIs Measure and Modulate Neural Activity to Help Restore Lost Capabilities Cochlear Implants and Retinal Prostheses Can Restore Lost Sensory Capabilities Motor and Communication BMIs Can Restore Lost Motor Capabilities Pathological Neural Activity Can Be Regulated by Deep Brain Stimulation and Antiseizure BMIs Replacement Part BMIs Can Restore Lost Brain Processing Capabilities Measuring and Modulating Neural Activity Rely on Advanced Neurotechnology BMIs Leverage the Activity of Many Neurons to Decode Movements Decoding Algorithms Estimate Intended Movements From Neural Activity Discrete Decoders Estimate Movement Goals Continuous Decoders Estimate Moment-by-Moment Details of Movements Increases in Performance and Capabilities of Motor and Communication BMIs Enable Clinical Translation Subjects Can Type Messages Using Communication BMIs Subjects Can Reach and Grasp Objects Using BMI-Directed Prosthetic Arms Subjects Can Reach and Grasp Objects Using BMI-Directed Stimulation of Paralyzed Arms Subjects Can Use Sensory Feedback Delivered by Cortical Stimulation During BMI Control BMIs Can Be Used to Advance Basic Neuroscience BMIs Raise New Neuroethics Considerations Highlights Selected Reading References Part VI The Biology of Emotion, Motivation, and Homeostasis 40 The Brain Stem The Cranial Nerves Are Homologous to the Spinal Nerves Cranial Nerves Mediate the Sensory and Motor Functions of the Face and Head and the Autonomic Functions of the Body Cranial Nerves Leave the Skull in Groups and Often Are Injured Together The Organization of the Cranial Nerve Nuclei Follows the Same Basic Plan as the Sensory and Motor Areas of the Spinal Cord Embryonic Cranial Nerve Nuclei Have a Segmental Organization Adult Cranial Nerve Nuclei Have a Columnar Organization The Organization of the Brain Stem Differs From the Spinal Cord in Three Important Ways Neuronal Ensembles in the Brain Stem Reticular Formation Coordinate Reflexes and Simple Behaviors Necessary for Homeostasis and Survival Cranial Nerve Reflexes Involve Mono- and Polysynaptic Brain Stem Relays Pattern Generators Coordinate More Complex Stereotypic Behaviors Control of Breathing Provides an Example of How Pattern Generators Are Integrated Into More Complex Behaviors Monoaminergic Neurons in the Brain Stem Modulate Sensory, Motor, Autonomic, and Behavioral Functions Many Modulatory Systems Use Monoamines as Neurotransmitters Monoaminergic Neurons Share Many Cellular Properties Autonomic Regulation and Breathing Are Modulated by Monoaminergic Pathways Pain Perception Is Modulated by Monoamine Antinociceptive Pathways Motor Activity Is Facilitated by Monoaminergic Pathways Ascending Monoaminergic Projections Modulate Forebrain Systems for Motivation and Reward Monoaminergic and Cholinergic Neurons Maintain Arousal by Modulating Forebrain Neurons Highlights Selected Reading References 41 The Hypothalamus: Autonomic, Hormonal, and Behavioral Control of Survival Homeostasis Keeps Physiological Parameters Within a Narrow Range and Is Essential for Survival The Hypothalamus Coordinates Homeostatic Regulation The Hypothalamus Is Commonly Divided Into Three Rostrocaudal Regions Modality-Specific Hypothalamic Neurons Link Interoceptive Sensory Feedback With Outputs That Control Adaptive Behaviors and Physiological Responses Modality-Specific Hypothalamic Neurons Also Receive Descending Feedforward Input Regarding Anticipated Homeostatic Challenges The Autonomic System Links the Brain to Physiological Responses Visceral Motor Neurons in the Autonomic System Are Organized Into Ganglia Preganglionic Neurons Are Localized in Three Regions Along the Brain Stem and Spinal Cord Sympathetic Ganglia Project to Many Targets Throughout the Body Parasympathetic Ganglia Innervate Single Organs The Enteric Ganglia Regulate the Gastrointestinal Tract Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine Are the Principal Transmitters of Autonomic Motor Neurons Autonomic Responses Involve Cooperation Between the Autonomic Divisions Visceral Sensory Information Is Relayed to the Brain Stem and Higher Brain Structures Central Control of Autonomic Function Can Involve the Periaqueductal Gray, Medial Prefrontal Cortex, and Amygdala The Neuroendocrine System Links the Brain to Physiological Responses Through Hormones Hypothalamic Axon Terminals in the Posterior Pituitary Release Oxytocin and Vasopressin Directly Into the Blood Endocrine Cells in the Anterior Pituitary Secrete Hormones in Response to Specific Factors Released by Hypothalamic Neurons Dedicated Hypothalamic Systems Control Specific Homeostatic Parameters Body Temperature Is Controlled by Neurons in the Median Preoptic Nucleus Water Balance and the Related Thirst Drive Are Controlled by Neurons in the Vascular Organ of the Lamina Terminalis, Median Preoptic Nucleus, and Subfornical Organ Energy Balance and the Related Hunger Drive Are Controlled by Neurons in the Arcuate Nucleus Sexually Dimorphic Regions in the Hypothalamus Control Sex, Aggression, and Parenting Sexual Behavior and Aggression Are Controlled by the Preoptic Hypothalamic Area and a Subarea of the Ventromedial Hypothalamic Nucleus Parental Behavior Is Controlled by the Preoptic Hypothalamic Area Highlights Selected Reading References 42 Emotion The Modern Search for the Neural Circuitry of Emotion Began in the Late 19th Century The Amygdala Has Been Implicated in Both Learned and Innate Fear The Amygdala Has Been Implicated in Innate Fear in Animals The Amygdala Is Important for Fear in Humans The Amygdala's Role Extends to Positive Emotions Emotional Responses Can Be Updated Through Extinction and Regulation Emotion Can Influence Cognitive Processes Many Other Brain Areas Contribute to Emotional Processing Functional Neuroimaging Is Contributing to Our Understanding of Emotion in Humans Functional Imaging Has Identified Neural Correlates of Feelings Emotion Is Related to Homeostasis Highlights Selected Reading References 43 Motivation, Reward, and Addictive States Motivational States Influence Goal-Directed Behavior Both Internal and External Stimuli Contribute to Motivational States Rewards Can Meet Both Regulatory and Nonregulatory Needs on Short and Long Timescales The Brain's Reward Circuitry Provides a Biological Substrate for Goal Selection Dopamine May Act as a Learning Signal Drug Addiction Is a Pathological Reward State All Drugs of Abuse Target Neurotransmitter Receptors, Transporters, or Ion Channels Repeated Exposure to a Drug of Abuse Induces Lasting Behavioral Adaptations Lasting Molecular Adaptations Are Induced in Brain Reward Regions by Repeated Drug Exposure Lasting Cellular and Circuit Adaptations Mediate Aspects of the Drug-Addicted State Natural Addictions Share Biological Mechanisms With Drug Addictions Highlights Selected Reading References 44 Sleep and Wakefulness Sleep Consists of Alternating Periods of REM Sleep and Non-REM Sleep The Ascending Arousal System Promotes Wakefulness The Ascending Arousal System in the Brain Stem and Hypothalamus Innervates the Forebrain Damage to the Ascending Arousal System Causes Coma Circuits Composed of Mutually Inhibitory Neurons Control Transitions From Wake to Sleep and From Non- REM to REM Sleep Sleep Is Regulated by Homeostatic and Circadian Drives The Homeostatic Pressure for Sleep Depends on Humoral Factors Circadian Rhythms Are Controlled by a Biological Clock in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Circadian Control of Sleep Depends on Hypothalamic Relays Sleep Loss Impairs Cognition and Memory Sleep Changes With Age Disruptions in Sleep Circuitry Contribute to Many Sleep Disorders Insomnia May Be Caused by Incomplete Inhibition of the Arousal System Sleep Apnea Fragments Sleep and Impairs Cognition Narcolepsy Is Caused by a Loss of Orexinergic Neurons REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Is Caused by Failure of REM Sleep Paralysis Circuits Restless Legs Syndrome and Periodic Limb Movement Disorder Disrupt Sleep Non-REM Parasomnias Include Sleepwalking, Sleep Talking, and Night Terrors Sleep Has Many Functions Highlights Selected Reading References Part VII Development and the Emergence of Behavior 45 Patterning the Nervous System The Neural Tube Arises From the Ectoderm Secreted Signals Promote Neural Cell Fate Development of the Neural Plate Is Induced by Signals From the Organizer Region Neural Induction Is Mediated by Peptide Growth Factors and Their Inhibitors Rostrocaudal Patterning of the Neural Tube Involves Signaling Gradients and Secondary Organizing Centers The Neural Tube Becomes Regionalized Early in Development Signals From the Mesoderm and Endoderm Define the Rostrocaudal Pattern of the Neural Plate Signals From Organizing Centers Within the Neural Tube Pattern the Forebrain, Midbrain, and Hindbrain Repressive Interactions Divide the Hindbrain Into Segments Dorsoventral Patterning of the Neural Tube Involves Similar Mechanisms at Different Rostrocaudal Levels The Ventral Neural Tube Is Patterned by Sonic Hedgehog Protein Secreted from the Notochord and Floor Plate The Dorsal Neural Tube Is Patterned by Bone Morphogenetic Proteins Dorsoventral Patterning Mechanisms Are Conserved Along the Rostrocaudal Extent of the Neural Tube Local Signals Determine Functional Subclasses of Neurons Rostrocaudal Position Is a Major Determinant of Motor Neuron Subtype Local Signals and Transcriptional Circuits Further Diversify Motor Neuron Subtypes The Developing Forebrain Is Patterned by Intrinsic and Extrinsic Influences Inductive Signals and Transcription Factor Gradients Establish Regional Differentiation Afferent Inputs Also Contribute to Regionalization Highlights Selected Reading References 46 Differentiation and Survival of Nerve Cells The Proliferation of Neural Progenitor Cells Involves Symmetric and Asymmetric Cell Divisions Radial Glial Cells Serve as Neural Progenitors and Structural Scaffolds The Generation of Neurons and Glial Cells Is Regulated by Delta-Notch Signaling and Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Transcription Factors The Layers of the Cerebral Cortex Are Established by Sequential Addition of Newborn Neurons Neurons Migrate Long Distances From Their Site of Origin to Their Final Position Excitatory Cortical Neurons Migrate Radially Along Glial Guides Cortical Interneurons Arise Subcortically and Migrate Tangentially to Cortex Neural Crest Cell Migration in the Peripheral Nervous System Does Not Rely on Scaffolding Structural and Molecular Innovations Underlie the Expansion of the Human Cerebral Cortex Intrinsic Programs and Extrinsic Factors Determine the Neurotransmitter Phenotypes of Neurons Neurotransmitter Choice Is a Core Component of Transcriptional Programs of Neuronal Differentiation Signals From Synaptic Inputs and Targets Can Influence the Transmitter Phenotypes of Neurons The Survival of a Neuron Is Regulated by Neurotrophic Signals From the Neuron's Target The Neurotrophic Factor Hypothesis Was Confirmed by the Discovery of Nerve Growth Factor Neurotrophins Are the Best-Studied Neurotrophic Factors Neurotrophic Factors Suppress a Latent Cell Death Program Highlights Selected Reading References 47 The Growth and Guidance of Axons Differences Between Axons and Dendrites Emerge Early in Development Dendrites Are Patterned by Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors The Growth Cone Is a Sensory Transducer and a Motor Structure Molecular Cues Guide Axons to Their Targets The Growth of Retinal Ganglion Axons Is Oriented in a Series of Discrete Steps Growth Cones Diverge at the Optic Chiasm Gradients of Ephrins Provide Inhibitory Signals in the Brain Axons From Some Spinal Neurons Are Guided Across the Midline Netrins Direct Developing Commissural Axons Across the Midline Chemoattractant and Chemorepellent Factors Pattern the Midline Highlights Selected Reading References 48 Formation and Elimination of Synapses Neurons Recognize Specific Synaptic Targets Recognition Molecules Promote Selective Synapse Formation in the Visual System Sensory Receptors Promote Targeting of Olfactory Neurons Different Synaptic Inputs Are Directed to Discrete Domains of the Postsynaptic Cell Neural Activity Sharpens Synaptic Specificity Principles of Synaptic Differentiation Are Revealed at the Neuromuscular Junction Differentiation of Motor Nerve Terminals Is Organized by Muscle Fibers Differentiation of the Postsynaptic Muscle Membrane Is Organized by the Motor Nerve The Nerve Regulates Transcription of Acetylcholine Receptor Genes The Neuromuscular Junction Matures in a Series of Steps Central Synapses and Neuromuscular Junctions Develop in Similar Ways Neurotransmitter Receptors Become Localized at Central Synapses Synaptic Organizing Molecules Pattern Central Nerve Terminals Some Synapses Are Eliminated After Birth Glial Cells Regulate Both Formation and Elimination of Synapses Highlights Selected Reading References 49 Experience and the Refinement of Synaptic Connections Development of Human Mental Function Is Influenced by Early Experience Early Experience Has Lifelong Effects on Social Behaviors Development of Visual Perception Requires Visual Experience Development of Binocular Circuits in the Visual Cortex Depends on Postnatal Activity Visual Experience Affects the Structure and Function of the Visual Cortex Patterns of Electrical Activity Organize Binocular Circuits Reorganization of Visual Circuits During a Critical Period Involves Alterations in Synaptic Connections Cortical Reorganization Depends on Changes in Both Excitation and Inhibition Synaptic Structures Are Altered During the Critical Period Thalamic Inputs Are Remodeled During the Critical Period Synaptic Stabilization Contributes to Closing the Critical Period Experience-Independent Spontaneous Neural Activity Leads to Early Circuit Refinement Activity-Dependent Refinement of Connections Is a General Feature of Brain Circuitry Many Aspects of Visual System Development Are Activity-Dependent Sensory Modalities Are Coordinated During a Critical Period Different Functions and Brain Regions Have Different Critical Periods of Development Critical Periods Can Be Reopened in Adulthood Visual and Auditory Maps Can Be Aligned in Adults Binocular Circuits Can Be Remodeled in Adults Highlights Selected Reading References 50 Repairing the Damaged Brain Damage to the Axon Affects Both the Neuron and Neighboring Cells Axon Degeneration Is an Active Process Axotomy Leads to Reactive Responses in Nearby Cells Central Axons Regenerate Poorly After Injury Therapeutic Interventions May Promote Regeneration of Injured Central Neurons Environmental Factors Support the Regeneration of Injured Axons Components of Myelin Inhibit Neurite Outgrowth Injury-Induced Scarring Hinders Axonal Regeneration An Intrinsic Growth Program Promotes Regeneration Formation of New Connections by Intact Axons Can Lead to Recovery of Function Following Injury Neurons in the Injured Brain Die but New Ones Can Be Born Therapeutic Interventions May Retain or Replace Injured Central Neurons Transplantation of Neurons or Their Progenitors Can Replace Lost Neurons Stimulation of Neurogenesis in Regions of Injury May Contribute to Restoring Function Transplantation of Nonneuronal Cells or Their Progenitors Can Improve Neuronal Function Restoration of Function Is the Aim of Regenerative Therapies Highlights Selected Reading References 51 Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System Genes and Hormones Determine Physical Differences Between Males and Females Chromosomal Sex Directs the Gonadal Differentiation of the Embryo Gonads Synthesize Hormones That Promote Sexual Differentiation Disorders of Steroid Hormone Biosynthesis Affect Sexual Differentiation Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System Generates Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors Erectile Function Is Controlled by a Sexually Dimorphic Circuit in the Spinal Cord Song Production in Birds Is Controlled by Sexually Dimorphic Circuits in the Forebrain Mating Behavior in Mammals Is Controlled by a Sexually Dimorphic Neural Circuit in the Hypothalamus Environmental Cues Regulate Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors Pheromones Control Partner Choice in Mice Early Experience Modifies Later Maternal Behavior A Set of Core Mechanisms Underlies Many Sexual Dimorphisms in the Brain and Spinal Cord The Human Brain Is Sexually Dimorphic Sexual Dimorphisms in Humans May Arise From Hormonal Action or Experience Dimorphic Structures in the Brain Correlate with Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation Highlights Selected Reading References Part VIII Learning, Memory, Language and Cognition 52 Learning and Memory Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Involve Different Neural Systems Short-Term Memory Maintains Transient Representations of Information Relevant to Immediate Goals Information Stored in Short-Term Memory Is Selectively Transferred to Long-Term Memory The Medial Temporal Lobe Is Critical for Episodic Long-Term Memory Episodic Memory Processing Involves Encoding, Storage, Retrieval, and Consolidation Episodic Memory Involves Interactions Between the Medial Temporal Lobe and Association Cortices Episodic Memory Contributes to Imagination and Goal-Directed Behavior The Hippocampus Supports Episodic Memory by Building Relational Associations Implicit Memory Supports a Range of Behaviors in Humans and Animals Different Forms of Implicit Memory Involve Different Neural Circuits Implicit Memory Can Be Associative or Nonassociative Operant Conditioning Involves Associating a Specific Behavior With a Reinforcing Event Associative Learning Is Constrained by the Biology of the Organism Errors and Imperfections in Memory Shed Light on Normal Memory Processes Highlights Suggested Reading References 53 Cellular Mechanisms of Implicit Memory Storage and the Biological Basis of Individuality Storage of Implicit Memory Involves Changes in the Effectiveness of Synaptic Transmission Habituation Results From Presynaptic Depression of Synaptic Transmission Sensitization Involves Presynaptic Facilitation of Synaptic Transmission Classical Threat Conditioning Involves Facilitation of Synaptic Transmission Long-Term Storage of Implicit Memory Involves Synaptic Changes Mediated by the cAMP-PKA-CREB Pathway Cyclic AMP Signaling Has a Role in Long-Term Sensitization The Role of Noncoding RNAs in the Regulation of Transcription Long-Term Synaptic Facilitation Is Synapse Specific Maintaining Long-Term Synaptic Facilitation Requires a Prion-Like Protein Regulator of Local Protein Synthesis Memory Stored in a Sensory-Motor Synapse Becomes Destabilized Following Retrieval but Can Be Restabilized Classical Threat Conditioning of Defensive Responses in Flies Also Uses the cAMP-PKA-CREB Pathway Memory of Threat Learning in Mammals Involves the Amygdala Learning-Induced Changes in the Structure of the Brain Contribute to the Biological Basis of Individuality Highlights Selected Reading References 54 The Hippocampus and the Neural Basis of Explicit Memory Storage Explicit Memory in Mammals Involves Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus Long-Term Potentiation at Distinct Hippocampal Pathways Is Essential for Explicit Memory Storage Different Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms Contribute to the Forms of Expression of Long-Term Potentiation Long-Term Potentiation Has Early and Late Phases Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity Provides a More Natural Mechanism for Altering Synaptic Strength Long-Term Potentiation in the Hippocampus Has Properties That Make It Useful as A Mechanism for Memory Storage Spatial Memory Depends on Long-Term Potentiation Explicit Memory Storage Also Depends on Long-Term Depression of Synaptic Transmission Memory Is Stored in Cell Assemblies Different Aspects of Explicit Memory Are Processed in Different Subregions of the Hippocampus The Dentate Gyrus Is Important for Pattern Separation The CA3 Region Is Important for Pattern Completion The CA2 Region Encodes Social Memory A Spatial Map of the External World Is Formed in the Hippocampus Entorhinal Cortex Neurons Provide a Distinct Representation of Space Place Cells Are Part of the Substrate for Spatial Memory Disorders of Autobiographical Memory Result From Functional Perturbations in the Hippocampus Highlights Selected Reading References 55 Language Language Has Many Structural Levels: Phonemes, Morphemes, Words, and Sentences Language Acquisition in Children Follows a Universal Pattern The "Universalist"� Infant Becomes Linguistically Specialized by Age 1 The Visual System Is Engaged in Language Production and Perception Prosodic Cues Are Learned as Early as In Utero Transitional Probabilities Help Distinguish Words in Continuous Speech There Is a Critical Period for Language Learning The "Parentese"� Speaking Style Enhances Language Learning Successful Bilingual Learning Depends on the Age at Which the Second Language Is Learned A New Model for the Neural Basis of Language Has Emerged Numerous Specialized Cortical Regions Contribute to Language Processing The Neural Architecture for Language Develops Rapidly During Infancy The Left Hemisphere Is Dominant for Language Prosody Engages Both Right and Left Hemispheres Depending on the Information Conveyed Studies of the Aphasias Have Provided Insights into Language Processing Broca's Aphasia Results From a Large Lesion in the Left Frontal Lobe Wernicke's Aphasia Results From Damage to Left Posterior Temporal Lobe Structures Conduction Aphasia Results From Damage to a Sector of Posterior Language Areas Global Aphasia Results From Widespread Damage to Several Language Centers Transcortical Aphasias Result From Damage to Areas Near Broca's and Wernicke's Areas Less Common Aphasias Implicate Additional Brain Areas Important for Language Highlights Selected Reading References 56 Decision-Making and Consciousness Perceptual Discriminations Require a Decision Rule A Simple Decision Rule Is the Application of a Threshold to a Representation of the Evidence Perceptual Decisions Involving Deliberation Mimic Aspects of Real-Life Decisions Involving Cognitive Faculties Neurons in Sensory Areas of the Cortex Supply the Noisy Samples of Evidence to Decision-Making Accumulation of Evidence to a Threshold Explains the Speed Versus Accuracy Trade-Off Neurons in the Parietal and Prefrontal Association Cortex Represent a Decision Variable Perceptual Decision-Making Is a Model for Reasoning From Samples of Evidence Decisions About Preference Use Evidence About Value Decision-Making Offers a Framework for Understanding Thought Processes, States of Knowing, and States of Awareness Consciousness Can be Understood Through the Lens of Decision Making Highlights Selected Reading References Part IX Diseases of the Nervous System 57 Diseases of the Peripheral Nerve and Motor Unit Disorders of the Peripheral Nerve, Neuromuscular Junction, and Muscle Can Be Distinguished Clinically A Variety of Diseases Target Motor Neurons and Peripheral Nerves Motor Neuron Diseases Do Not Affect Sensory Neurons (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis) Diseases of Peripheral Nerves Affect Conduction of the Action Potential The Molecular Basis of Some Inherited Peripheral Neuropathies Has Been Defined Disorders of Synaptic Transmission at the Neuromuscular Junction Have Multiple Causes Myasthenia Gravis Is the Best-Studied Example of a Neuromuscular Junction Disease Treatment of Myasthenia Is Based on the Physiological Effects and Autoimmune Pathogenesis of the Disease There Are Two Distinct Congenital Forms of Myasthenia Gravis Lambert-Eaton Syndrome and Botulism Also Alter Neuromuscular Transmission Diseases of Skeletal Muscle Can Be Inherited or Acquired Dermatomyositis Exemplifies Acquired Myopathy Muscular Dystrophies Are the Most Common Inherited Myopathies Some Inherited Diseases of Skeletal Muscle Arise From Genetic Defects in Voltage-Gated Ion Channels Highlights Selected Reading References 58 Seizures and Epilepsy Classification of Seizures and the Epilepsies Is Important for Pathogenesis and Treatment Seizures Are Temporary Disruptions of Brain Function Epilepsy Is a Chronic Condition of Recurrent Seizures The Electroencephalogram Represents the Collective Activity of Cortical Neurons Focal Onset Seizures Originate Within a Small Group of Neurons Neurons in a Seizure Focus Have Abnormal Bursting Activity The Breakdown of Surround Inhibition Leads to Synchronization The Spread of Seizure Activity Involves Normal Cortical Circuitry Generalized Onset Seizures Are Driven by Thalamocortical Circuits Locating the Seizure Focus Is Critical to the Surgical Treatment of Epilepsy Prolonged Seizures Can Cause Brain Damage Repeated Convulsive Seizures Are a Medical Emergency Excitotoxicity Underlies Seizure-Related Brain Damage The Factors Leading to Development of Epilepsy Are Poorly Understood Mutations in Ion Channels Are Among the Genetic Causes of Epilepsy The Genesis of Acquired Epilepsies Is a Maladaptive Response to Injury Highlights Selected Reading References 59 Disorders of Conscious and Unconscious Mental Processes Conscious and Unconscious Cognitive Processes Have Distinct Neural Correlates Differences Between Conscious and Unconscious Processes in Perception Can Be Seen in Exaggerated Form After Brain Damage The Control of Action Is Largely Unconscious The Conscious Recall of Memories Is a Creative Process Behavioral Observation Needs to Be Supplemented With Subjective Reports Verification of Subjective Reports Is Challenging Malingering and Hysteria Can Lead to Unreliable Subjective Reports Highlights Selected Reading References 60 Disorders of Thought and Volition in Schizophrenia Schizophrenia Is Characterized by Cognitive Impairments, Deficit Symptoms, and Psychotic Symptoms Schizophrenia Has a Characteristic Course of Illness With Onset During the Second and Third Decades of Life The Psychotic Symptoms of Schizophrenia Tend to Be Episodic The Risk of Schizophrenia Is Highly Influenced by Genes Schizophrenia Is Characterized by Abnormalities in Brain Structure and Function Loss of Gray Matter in the Cerebral Cortex Appears to Result From Loss of Synaptic Contacts Rather Than Loss of Cells Abnormalities in Brain Development During Adolescence May Be Responsible for Schizophrenia Antipsychotic Drugs Act on Dopaminergic Systems in the Brain Highlights Selected Reading References 61 Disorders of Mood and Anxiety Mood Disorders Can Be Divided Into Two General Classes: Unipolar Depression and Bipolar Disorder Major Depressive Disorder Differs Significantly From Normal Sadness Major Depressive Disorder Often Begins Early in Life A Diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder Requires an Episode of Mania Anxiety Disorders Represent Significant Dysregulation of Fear Circuitry Both Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors Contribute to Mood and Anxiety Disorders Depression and Stress Share Overlapping Neural Mechanisms Dysfunctions of Human Brain Structures and Circuits Involved in Mood and Anxiety Disorders Can Be Identified by Neuroimaging Identification of Abnormally Functioning Neural Circuits Helps Explain Symptoms and May Suggest Treatments A Decrease in Hippocampal Volume Is Associated With Mood Disorders Major Depression and Anxiety Disorders Can Be Treated Effectively Current Antidepressant Drugs Affect Monoaminergic Neural Systems Ketamine Shows Promise as a Rapidly Acting Drug to Treat Major Depressive Disorder Psychotherapy Is Effective in the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder and Anxiety Disorders Electroconvulsive Therapy Is Highly Effective Against Depression Newer Forms of Neuromodulation Are Being Developed to Treat Depression Bipolar Disorder Can Be Treated With Lithium and Several Anticonvulsant Drugs Second-Generation Antipsychotic Drugs Are Useful Treatments for Bipolar Disorder Highlights Selected Reading References 62 Disorders Affecting Social Cognition: Autism Spectrum Disorder Autism Spectrum Disorder Phenotypes Share Characteristic Behavioral Features Autism Spectrum Disorder Phenotypes Also Share Distinctive Cognitive Abnormalities Social Communication Is Impaired in Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Mind Blindness Hypothesis Other Social Mechanisms Contribute to Autism Spectrum Disorder People With Autism Show a Lack of Behavioral Flexibility Some Individuals With Autism Have Special Talents Genetic Factors Increase Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder Rare Genetic Syndromes Have Provided Initial Insights Into the Biology of Autism Spectrum Disorders Fragile X Syndrome Rett Syndrome Williams Syndrome Angelman Syndrome and Prader-Willi Syndrome Neurodevelopmental Syndromes Provide Insight Into the Mechanisms of Social Cognition The Complex Genetics of Common Forms of Autism Spectrum Disorder Are Being Clarified Genetics and Neuropathology Are Illuminating the Neural Mechanisms of Autism Spectrum Disorder Genetic Findings Can Be Interpreted Using Systems Biological Approaches Autism Spectrum Disorder Genes Have Been Studied in a Variety of Model Systems Postmortem and Brain Tissue Studies Provide Insight Into Autism Spectrum Disorder Pathology Advances in Basic and Translational Science Provide a Path to Elucidate the Pathophysiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder Highlights Selected Reading References 63 Genetic Mechanisms in Neurodegenerative Diseases of the Nervous System Huntington Disease Involves Degeneration of the Striatum Spinobulbar Muscular Atrophy Is Caused by Androgen Receptor Dysfunction Hereditary Spinocerebellar Ataxias Share Similar Symptoms but Have Distinct Etiologies Parkinson Disease Is a Common Degenerative Disorder of the Elderly Selective Neuronal Loss Occurs After Damage to Ubiquitously Expressed Genes Animal Models Are Productive Tools for Studying Neurodegenerative Diseases Mouse Models Reproduce Many Features of Neurodegenerative Diseases Invertebrate Models Manifest Progressive Neurodegeneration The Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Diseases Follows Several Pathways Protein Misfolding and Degradation Contribute to Parkinson Disease Protein Misfolding Triggers Pathological Alterations in Gene Expression Mitochondrial Dysfunction Exacerbates Neurodegenerative Disease Apoptosis and Caspases Modify the Severity of Neurodegeneration Understanding the Molecular Dynamics of Neurodegenerative Diseases Suggests Approaches to Therapeutic Intervention Highlights Selected Reading References 64 The Aging Brain The Structure and Function of the Brain Change With Age Cognitive Decline Is Significant and Debilitating in a Substantial Fraction of the Elderly Alzheimer Disease Is the Most Common Cause of Dementia The Brain in Alzheimer Disease Is Altered by Atrophy, Amyloid Plaques, and Neurofibrillary Tangles Amyloid Plaques Contain Toxic Peptides That Contribute to Alzheimer Pathology Neurofibrillary Tangles Contain Microtubule-Associated Proteins Risk Factors for Alzheimer Disease Have Been Identified Alzheimer Disease Can Now Be Diagnosed Well but Available Treatments Are Unsatisfactory Highlights Selected Reading References Index
