EPITAXY OF SEMICONDUCTORS : physics and fabrication of heterostructures.

Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Contents
About the Author
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
	1.1 Epitaxy
		1.1.1 Roots of Epitaxy
		1.1.2 Epitaxy and Bulk-Crystal Growth
	1.2 Issues of Epitaxy
		1.2.1 Convention on Use of the Term ``Atom''
		1.2.2 Assembly of Atoms
		1.2.3 Tasks for Epitaxial Growth
	References
2 Structural Properties of Heterostructures
	2.1 Basic Crystal Structures
		2.1.1 Notation of Planes and Directions
		2.1.2 Wafer Orientation
		2.1.3 Face-Centered Cubic and Hexagonal Close-Packed Structures
		2.1.4 Zincblende and Diamond Structures
		2.1.5 Rocksalt and Cesium-Chloride Structures
		2.1.6 Wurtzite Structure
		2.1.7 Thermal Expansion
		2.1.8 Structural Stability Map
		2.1.9 Polytypism
		2.1.10 Random Alloys and Vegard's Rule
		2.1.11 Virtual-Crystal Approximation
	2.2 Elastic Properties of Heterostructures
		2.2.1 Strain in One and Two Dimensions
		2.2.2 Three-Dimensional Strain
		2.2.3 Hooke's Law
		2.2.4 Poisson's Ratio
		2.2.5 Pseudomorphic Heterostructures
		2.2.6 Critical Layer Thickness
		2.2.7 Approaches to Extend the Critical Thickness
		2.2.8 Partially Relaxed Layers and Thermal Mismatch
	2.3 Dislocations
		2.3.1 Edge and Screw Dislocations
		2.3.2 Motion of Dislocations
		2.3.3 Dislocation Network
		2.3.4 Dislocations in the fcc Structure
		2.3.5 Dislocations in Diamond and Zincblende Structures
		2.3.6 Dislocation Energy
		2.3.7 Dislocations in the hcp and Wurtzite Structures
		2.3.8 Antiphase Domains
		2.3.9 Mosaic Crystal
	2.4 Structural Characterization Using X-Ray Diffraction
		2.4.1 Bragg's Law
		2.4.2 The Structure Factor
		2.4.3 The Reciprocal Lattice
		2.4.4 The Ewald Construction
		2.4.5 High-Resolution Scans in the Reciprocal Space
		2.4.6 Reciprocal-Space Map
	2.5 Problems Chapter 2
	2.6 General Reading Chapter 2
	References
3 Structure of Organic Crystals
	3.1 Building Blocks in Organic Crystals
		3.1.1 Bonding in Organic Crystals
		3.1.2 Small-Molecule Crystals
		3.1.3 Polymers
	3.2 Substrate-Layer Relation and Defects of Organic Crystals
		3.2.1 Substrate-Layer Relation of Organic Crystals
		3.2.2 Ordered Pentacene Layers
		3.2.3 Defects in Small-Molecule Crystals
		3.2.4 Defects in Polymers
	3.3 Problems Chapter 3
	3.4 General Reading Chapter 3
	References
4 Electronic Properties of Heterostructures
	4.1 Bulk Properties
		4.1.1 Electronic Bands of Zincblende and Wurtzite Crystals
		4.1.2 Strain Effects
		4.1.3 Spontaneous Polarization and Piezoelectricity
		4.1.4 Temperature Dependence of the Bandgap
		4.1.5 Bandgap of Alloys
	4.2 Band Offsets
		4.2.1 Electron-Affinity Rule
		4.2.2 Common-Anion Rule
		4.2.3 Model of Deep Impurity Levels
		4.2.4 Interface-Dipol Theory
		4.2.5 Model-Solid Theory
		4.2.6 Offsets of Some Isovalent Heterostructures
		4.2.7 Band Offset of Heterovalent Interfaces
		4.2.8 Band Offsets of Alloys
	4.3 Electronic States in Low-Dimensional Structures
		4.3.1 Dimensionality of the Electronic Density-of-States
		4.3.2 Characteristic Scale for Size Quantization
		4.3.3 Quantum Wells
		4.3.4 Quantum Wires
		4.3.5 Quantum Dots
	4.4 Problems Chapter4
	4.5 General Reading Chapter4
	References
5 Electronic Properties of Organic Semiconductors
	5.1 Band Structure of Organic Crystals
		5.1.1 Highest Occupied and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbitals
		5.1.2 Bands and Bandgaps in Organic Crystals
		5.1.3 Excitons in Organic Crystals
	5.2 Transport in Organic Semiconductors
		5.2.1 Polarons
		5.2.2 Mobility of Carriers in Organic Semiconductors
	5.3 Interfaces in Organic Semiconductors
		5.3.1 Organic-Organic Heterointerface
		5.3.2 Organic-Metal Interface
	5.4 Problems Chapter 5
	5.5 General Reading Chapter 5
	References
6 Thermodynamics of Epitaxial Layer-Growth
	6.1 Phase Equilibria
		6.1.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
		6.1.2 Gibbs Phase Rule
		6.1.3 Gibbs Energy of a Single-Component System
		6.1.4 Phases Boundaries in a Single-Component System
		6.1.5 Driving Force for Crystallization
		6.1.6 Two-Component System
	6.2 Crystalline Growth
		6.2.1 Homogeneous Three-Dimensional Nucleation
		6.2.2 Heterogeneous Three-Dimensional Nucleation
		6.2.3 Growth Modes
		6.2.4 Equilibrium Surfaces
		6.2.5 Two-Dimensional Nucleation
		6.2.6 Island Growth and Coalescence
		6.2.7 Growth without Nucleation
		6.2.8 Ripening Process After Growth Interruption
	6.3 Problems Chapter 6
	6.4 General Reading Chapter 6
	References
7 Atomistic Aspects of Epitaxial Layer-Growth
	7.1 Surface Structure
		7.1.1 The Kink Site of a Kossel Crystal
		7.1.2 Surfaces of a Kossel Crystal
		7.1.3 Relaxation and Reconstruction
		7.1.4 Electron-Counting Model
		7.1.5 Denotation of Surface Reconstructions
		7.1.6 Reconstructions of the GaAs(001) Surface
		7.1.7 The Silicon (111)(7times7) Reconstruction
	7.2 Kinetic Process Steps in Layer Growth
		7.2.1 Kinetics in the Terrace-Step-Kink Model
		7.2.2 Atomistic Processes in Nucleation and Growth
		7.2.3 Adatoms on a Terraced Surface
		7.2.4 Growth by Step Advance
		7.2.5 The Ehrlich-Schwoebel Barrier
		7.2.6 Effect of the Ehrlich-Schwoebel Barrier on Surface Steps
		7.2.7 Roughening of Surface Steps
		7.2.8 Growth of a Si(111)(7times7) Surface
		7.2.9 Growth of a GaAs(001) β2(2times4) Surface
	7.3 Self-organized Nanostructures
		7.3.1 Stranski-Krastanow Island Growth
		7.3.2 Thermodynamics Versus Kinetics in Island Formation
		7.3.3 Wire Growth on Non-planar Surfaces
	7.4 Problems Chapter7
	7.5 General Reading Chapter7
	References
8 In Situ Growth Analysis
	8.1 Surface and Ambient Probing
	8.2 In Situ Ambient Analysis
		8.2.1 Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry
		8.2.2 Optical Ambient Probing
	8.3 Surface-Sensitive Diffraction Techniques
		8.3.1 Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED)
		8.3.2 Grazing Incidence X-Ray Diffraction (GIXD) and Reflection
	8.4 Optical in Situ Surface Probes
		8.4.1 Pyrometry
		8.4.2 Deflectometry
		8.4.3 Reflectance and Ellipsometry
		8.4.4 Reflectance-Difference Spectroscopy
	8.5 Problems Chapter 8
	8.6 General Reading Chapter 8
	References
9 Application of Surfactants
	9.1 The Surfactant Effect
		9.1.1 Concept of Surfactant-Mediated Growth
		9.1.2 Evidence for the Surfactant Effect
		9.1.3 Surfactant-Mediated Ge/Si Epitaxy
		9.1.4 Surfactant-Mediated Epitaxy of III–V Semiconductors
	9.2 Models of Surfactant-Assisted Epitaxy
		9.2.1 Thermodynamic Considerations
		9.2.2 Kinetic Approach
		9.2.3 The Diffusion—De-exchange—Passivation (DDP) Model
		9.2.4 Exchange Pathways in Surfactant-Mediated Epitaxy
	9.3 Conclusion
	9.4 Problems Chapter 9
	9.5 General Reading Chapter 9
	References
10 Doping, Diffusion, and Contacts
	10.1 Doping of Semiconductors
		10.1.1 Thermal Equilibrium Carrier-Densities
		10.1.2 Solubility of Dopants
		10.1.3 Amphoteric Dopants
		10.1.4 Compensation by Native Defects
		10.1.5 Hydrogen Compensation and Passivation
		10.1.6 DX Centers
		10.1.7 Fermi-Level Stabilization Model
		10.1.8 Delta Doping and Modulation Doping
	10.2 Diffusion
		10.2.1 Diffusion Equations
		10.2.2 Diffusion Mechanisms
		10.2.3 Effective Diffusion Coefficients
		10.2.4 Disordering of Heterointerfaces
	10.3 Metal-Semiconductor Contact
		10.3.1 Ideal Schottky Contact
		10.3.2 Real Metal-Semiconductor Contact
		10.3.3 Practical Ohmic Metal-Semiconductor Contact
		10.3.4 Epitaxial Contact Structures
	10.4 Problems Chap.6
	10.5 General Reading Chap.6
	References
11 Methods of Epitaxy
	11.1 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy
		11.1.1 Growth Systems
		11.1.2 Congruent Melting
		11.1.3 LPE Principle
		11.1.4 LPE Processes
	11.2 Metalorganic Vapor-Phase Epitaxy
		11.2.1 Metalorganic Precursors
		11.2.2 The Growth Process
		11.2.3 Mass Transport
	11.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy
		11.3.1 MBE System and Vacuum Requirements
		11.3.2 Beam Sources
		11.3.3 Uniformity of Deposition
		11.3.4 Adsorption of Impinging Particles
	11.4 Problems Chapter 11
	11.5 General Reading Chapter11-1
	References
12 Special Growth Techniques
	12.1 Selective Area Growth
		12.1.1 Principle of Selective Area Growth
		12.1.2 Conditions for Selectivity
		12.1.3 Selective Area Growth of Faceted Structures
		12.1.4 Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth (ELO)
	12.2 Vapor–Liquid–Solid Growth of Nanowires
		12.2.1 Outline of the VLS Method
		12.2.2 Growth of Si Nanowires
		12.2.3 Growth of III–V Nanowires
	12.3 Atomic Layer Epitaxy and Related Techniques
		12.3.1 Atomic Layer Epitaxy (ALE)
		12.3.2 Migration-Enhanced Epitaxy (MEE)
		12.3.3 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)
	12.4 Deposition of Organic Crystals
		12.4.1 Methods of Organic Layer Deposition
		12.4.2 Epitaxy of Organic Semiconductors
	12.5 General Reading Chapter 12
	References
Appendix
Index
Fundamental Physical Constants