Enzymes in Food Technology

Contents......Page 10
1.1 Introduction......Page 16
1.2.1 Enzyme nomenclature......Page 17
1.2.2 Enzyme kinetics......Page 18
1.2.3 Enzyme (in)stability......Page 21
1.2.4 Composition and activity of commercial enzyme preparations......Page 23
1.3 Sources and range of enzymes for food technology......Page 24
1.4 Food enzyme legislation......Page 29
1.5 Modification of food enzyme activity by protein engineering......Page 31
References......Page 33
2.2 Bread......Page 34
2.2.1 Fungal alpha-amylases......Page 35
2.2.2 Amylases to extend shelf life......Page 36
2.2.3 Xylanases/pentosanases/hemicellulases......Page 43
2.2.4 Lipase......Page 46
2.2.5 Oxidases......Page 48
2.2.6 Synergistic effects of enzymes......Page 49
2.2.7 Enzymes for frozen dough and part-baked bread......Page 54
2.3.2 Increasing brightness and colour stability......Page 61
2.3.3 Improving texture......Page 63
2.3.4 Mechanisms for the effect of lipase......Page 66
References......Page 69
3.1.1 History of brewing......Page 72
3.2.1 Malt and adjuncts......Page 73
3.2.5 Exogenous enzymes as processing aids......Page 74
3.3 The processes of malting and brewing......Page 75
3.3.2 Malt specification......Page 76
3.3.3 The brewing process......Page 77
3.4.1 Enzymes in malting......Page 79
3.4.2 Enzymes in mashing......Page 81
3.4.4 Enzymes in lautering/mash filtration......Page 85
3.4.5 Enzymes in fermentation......Page 86
3.4.7 Chill proofing enzymes......Page 88
3.4.8 Future developments......Page 89
Further reading......Page 90
4.2 Legal aspects of the use of enzymes in winemaking......Page 91
4.3 Enzymes in winemaking: history and definitions......Page 92
4.4 Enzyme properties and composition......Page 93
4.5 Applications of enzymes......Page 94
4.5.1 Enzymes for pressing and maceration......Page 95
4.6 Enzyme applications for white and pink wine grape varieties......Page 96
4.8 Enzyme applications for must and press wines: clarification enzymes......Page 98
4.9 Enzyme applications for young wines: maturation and filtration enzymes......Page 99
4.10 Enzyme preparations for aroma liberation......Page 100
4.12.1 Urease......Page 102
4.13.2 Colour stabilisation......Page 103
References......Page 104
5.2.1 The nature and identity of rennets and coagulants......Page 106
5.2.2 Main characteristics of rennets and coagulants from different sources......Page 107
5.2.3 Production of rennets and coagulants......Page 110
5.3 Lactoperoxidase......Page 111
5.4.1 Types of enzymes available commercially......Page 112
5.4.2 Enzyme addition technology......Page 114
5.4.3 Enzyme-modified cheese (EMC) technology......Page 116
5.5 Lysozyme......Page 118
5.7.1 Lipolysed milk fat (LMF)......Page 119
5.8 Lactase......Page 120
References......Page 122
6.2 Industrial proteases......Page 124
6.3 Protein hydrolysis in enzyme applications......Page 125
6.3.1 Control of hydrolysis reaction......Page 126
6.3.2 Calculation of the degree of hydrolysis of proteins using the pH-stat technique......Page 127
6.3.4 Some kinetic aspects of protein hydrolysis......Page 129
6.3.5 The effect of proteolysis......Page 131
6.4 The bitterness problem......Page 132
6.4.1 Other off-flavour problems related to bitterness......Page 133
6.5 Protein hydrolysis for food processing......Page 134
6.5.1 Inactivation of enzyme activity and downstream processing......Page 135
6.6 Functional protein hydrolysates......Page 137
6.7 Low allergenic peptides for baby food formulae......Page 139
6.8 Meat extracts......Page 140
6.9.1 Hydrolysis of meat protein in relation to bone cleaning......Page 142
6.10 Enzymatic tenderisation of meat......Page 144
6.11 Modification of wheat gluten......Page 145
6.12.1 Functional protein hydrolysates......Page 146
6.12.2 Low molecular weight hydrolysates......Page 147
6.12.3 The membrane reactor......Page 148
6.13.1 Production of flavour enhancers......Page 149
6.13.3 Hydrolysed animal proteins (e-HAP)......Page 150
6.14 Yeast extracts......Page 151
6.15 Fish processes......Page 152
6.16 Protein cross-linking in food processing......Page 153
6.16.1 Applications of transglutaminase......Page 154
References......Page 155
7.1 Introduction......Page 159
7.2 The legal situation......Page 160
7.3 Definitions and characteristics......Page 161
7.4 Pectins......Page 162
7.4.1 Smooth-region pectinases......Page 163
7.4.2 Hairy-region pectinases......Page 164
7.5 Cellulose and hemicellulose......Page 165
7.6 Starch......Page 166
7.7 Protein......Page 168
7.8 Application of technical enzyme products......Page 169
7.9 Pome fruit processing......Page 170
7.9.1 Enzymatic treatment of the mash......Page 172
7.9.2 Pomace extraction......Page 173
7.9.3 Maceration......Page 174
7.9.4 Pomace maceration......Page 175
7.9.5 Juice treatment......Page 176
7.9.6 Traditional clarification and filtration......Page 180
7.9.7 Ultrafiltration of apple juice......Page 181
7.9.8 Cloudy apple juice or apple juice concentrate......Page 182
7.10.1 Processing of Concord grapes......Page 183
7.10.2 Manufacturing white grape juice and grape juice concentrate......Page 184
7.11 Berries......Page 185
7.13 Citrus fruit......Page 187
7.13.1 WESOS......Page 188
7.13.2 Citrus juice concentrates......Page 190
7.13.3 Clear and semi-cloudy citrus concentrates......Page 191
7.13.4 Extraction of citrus oil......Page 192
7.13.5 Cloudifier......Page 193
7.14 Tropical fruit......Page 194
7.15 Vegetables......Page 196
References......Page 197
8.1 Citrus peeling......Page 199
8.2 Citrus peel processing......Page 201
8.3 Fruit firming......Page 202
8.3.1 Strawberries......Page 209
8.3.2 Tomato......Page 211
References......Page 214
9.1 Introduction......Page 215
9.2.1 Starch liquefaction......Page 216
9.2.2 alpha-Amylases......Page 219
9.2.4 Tailor-made glucose syrups......Page 225
9.2.5 Use of syrups......Page 226
9.2.7 DX, DE and reducing value......Page 228
9.2.8 High conversion syrup......Page 229
9.2.9 Production of high dextrose syrups......Page 230
9.2.10 Amyloglucosidase/pullulanus combination in the production of high dextrose syrup......Page 231
9.2.11 Continuous saccharification......Page 232
9.3 Enzymes as processing aids in the purification of saccharified wheat starch......Page 233
9.4.1 The isomerisation reaction......Page 234
9.4.4 Isomerisation pH......Page 235
9.4.6 The immobilised enzyme system......Page 236
9.4.7 Process lay-out......Page 237
9.4.9 Controlling isomerisation costs......Page 239
9.5 Use of high-fructose corn syrups (HFCS)......Page 240
9.6 Cyclodextrins......Page 241
9.8 Conclusion......Page 242
References......Page 243
10.2 Sources of commercial enzymes......Page 244
10.2.2 Plant-derived enzymes......Page 245
10.3 Microbial enzyme fermentation......Page 247
10.4 Preservation of industrial microorganisms......Page 248
10.5 Inoculum development......Page 249
10.6 Submerged fermentation......Page 250
10.7.1 Filtration with filter aid......Page 251
10.8 Concentration......Page 252
10.9 Drying......Page 253
10.10.1 Powder blending......Page 254
10.11 Surface culture (Koji) fermentation......Page 255
10.12 Intracellular enzyme production......Page 256
10.13 Genetics of producer organisms......Page 257
References......Page 259
A......Page 260
B......Page 261
C......Page 262
E......Page 263
G......Page 264
I......Page 265
M......Page 266
P......Page 267
S......Page 269
Z......Page 270