Enzymes in Degradation of the Lignocellulosic Wastes

Foreword by Dr. Chaitanya Kumar Jha
Foreword by Dr. Manojkumar Z. Chopda
Foreword by Dr. Dilan Sanjitha Rajapakshe
Preface
Contents
About the Authors
1 Introduction
	1.1 Wastes
		1.1.1 Lignocellulosic Wastes
	1.2 Lignocellulosic Wastes and Problems in Their Degradation
	1.3 Linkages Between Lignocellulose Components
	1.4 Value-Added Products from Lignocellulosic Wastes
	1.5 Types of Lignocellulosic Biomass
		1.5.1 Dry Grass
		1.5.2 Forest Woody Feedstock
		1.5.3 Municipal Solid Wastes
		1.5.4 Agricultural Residues
	1.6 Bioprocessing of Lignocellulose Wastes
	1.7 Advantages of Enzymes in Degradation of Lignocellulose Wastes
		1.7.1 Enzymes
		1.7.2 Enzymes in Lignocellulose Degradation
	1.8 Fungi-Degrading Lignocellulosic Wastes
		1.8.1 Wood-Decaying Fungi
		1.8.2 Brown-Rot Fungi
		1.8.3 White-Rot Fungi
		1.8.4 Soft-Rot Fungi
	References
2 Cellulase in Degradation of Lignocellulosic Wastes
	2.1 Cellulose
	2.2 Microcrystalline Cellulose
	2.3 Cellulose Structure, Function, and Properties
	2.4 Cellulase Production
		2.4.1 Microorganisms Used for Cellulase Production
	2.5 Enzymes Involved in Cellulose Breakdown
	2.6 Cellulase Systems of Bacteria and Fungi
		2.6.1 Bacterial Cellulase Systems
		2.6.2 Fungi Cellulase Systems
	2.7 Microbial Sources of Cellulase Enzyme
		2.7.1 Bacteria Sources
		2.7.2 Actinobacteria Sources
		2.7.3 Fungi Sources
	2.8 Cellulosomes to Degrade Cellulose
		2.8.1 Carbohydrate-Active enZymes (CAZymes)
		2.8.2 Cellobiose Dehydrogenase (CDH)
	2.9 Cellulolytic Mechanisms
	2.10 Assay Methods
		2.10.1 Determination of Cellulase Activity (CMCase Assay)
	2.11 Physical and Biological Methods for Pretreatment of Cellulose
		2.11.1 Physical Methods for Pretreatment of Cellulose
		2.11.2 Biological Methods
	2.12 Mechanism of Cellulose Hydrolysis
		2.12.1 Genes Related to Cellulose Degradation
	2.13 Transcriptional Regulators Involved in Regulation of Cellulolytic Gene Expression (T. reesei) (Shida et al. 2016)
		2.13.1 Xylanase Regulator (Xyr1)
		2.13.2 Activator of Cellulase Expression 2 (Ace2)
		2.13.3 Activator of Cellulase Expression 1 (Ace1)
		2.13.4 Beta-Glucosidase Regulator (BglR)
		2.13.5 Activator of Cellulase Expression 3 (Ace3)
		2.13.6 GH Families Involved in Cellulose Degradation
	2.14 Applications of Enzyme Cellulase
		2.14.1 Paper and Pulp Industries
		2.14.2 Textile Industry
		2.14.3 Food and Feeds
		2.14.4 Bioethanol
	References
3 Hemicellulase in Degradation of Lignocellulosic Wastes
	3.1 Hemicellulose Structure and Property
	3.2 Xylan Degradation
	3.3 Families of Enzyme Hemicellulase
	3.4 Hemicellulase Production by Microorganisms
	3.5 Brown-Rot, White-Rot and Soft-Rot Fungi in Degradation of Hemicellulose
	3.6 Transcriptional Regulators Involved in Regulation of Xylanolytic Gene Expression (T. Reesei) (Shida et al. 2016)
	3.7 Methods for Pretreatment of Hemicellulose
		3.7.1 Alkaline Pretreatment
		3.7.2 Wet Oxidation
		3.7.3 Acid Pretreatment
		3.7.4 Green Solvents
		3.7.5 Steam-Explosion Pretreatment
	3.8 Enzymes for Hemicellulose Biodegradation
		3.8.1 Hemicellulase Enzymes
	3.9 Method for Measurement of Hemicellulase Enzyme Activities
		3.9.1 Laminarinase (Linton and Greenaway 2004)
		3.9.2 Licheninase (Linton and Greenaway 2004)
		3.9.3 Xylanase (Linton and Greenaway 2004)
	3.10 Applications of Hemicellulase Enzyme
		3.10.1 In Paper and Pulp Industries
		3.10.2 Processing of Animal Feed
		3.10.3 Beverage Industry
		3.10.4 Bakery Industry
		3.10.5 Pharmaceutical Industry
	References
4 Ligninase in Degradation of Lignocellulosic Wastes
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Lignin Occurrence, Biogenesis, and Biodegradation
	4.3 Mechanisms of Lignin Degradation
	4.4 Enzymes Involved in the Degradation
		4.4.1 Lignin Peroxidase (LiP) (EC 1.11.1.14)
		4.4.2 Manganese Peroxidase (MnP) (EC 1.11.1.13)
		4.4.3 Versatile Peroxidase
		4.4.4 Cu-Containing Laccase
	4.5 Future Perspectives
	References
5 Pectinase in Degradation of Lignocellulosic Wastes
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 The Pectic Substances
		5.2.1 Protopectin
		5.2.2 Pectinic Acids
		5.2.3 Pectin or Pectins
		5.2.4 Pectic Acid
	5.3 Microbial Pectinolytic Enzymes
		5.3.1 Esterases
		5.3.2 Depolymerases
		5.3.3 Protopectinases
	5.4 Occurrence of Pectinolytic Enzymes
		5.4.1 Esterases
		5.4.2 Depolymerases
	5.5 Physicochemical and Biological Properties
		5.5.1 Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Esterases
		5.5.2 Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Depolymerases
	5.6 Assay Methods of Pectinolytic Enzymes
		5.6.1 Assay Methods for Esterases
		5.6.2 Assay Methods for Depolymerases
	5.7 Production of Pectinases
		5.7.1 Production of Bacterial Pectinases
		5.7.2 Production of Fungal Pectinases
	5.8 Pectinases as First Protein Product Made in Leaves
	5.9 Application of Pectinases in Deconstruction of Lignocellulosic Wastes
		5.9.1 Potential Applications of Pectinases
	5.10 Special Approaches to Lignocellulosic Wastes
	5.11 Conclusion
	References
6 Lipase in Degradation of Lignocellulosic Wastes
	6.1 Introduction of Lipases Enzyme
	6.2 Structure of Lipase
		6.2.1 Three-Dimensional Structure of Lipases
	6.3 Classification of Lipases
		6.3.1 Bacterial Lipases
	6.4 Reactions Catalyzed by Lipase Enzyme
		6.4.1 Acidolysis
		6.4.2 Trans-esterification
		6.4.3 Esterification
		6.4.4 Aminolysis
		6.4.5 Hydrolysis
		6.4.6 Alcoholysis
	6.5 Catalytic Mechanism of Lipases
	6.6 Lipase-Producing Bacteria and Fungi
		6.6.1 Lipases Enzyme by Solid-State Fermentation
	6.7 Assay for Lipase Enzyme (Amara et al. 2009)
	6.8 Applications of Lipases Enzyme
		6.8.1 Lipases for the Food and Agro-industrial Applications
		6.8.2 Dairy Industries
		6.8.3 Baking Industries
		6.8.4 Human Milk Fat Substitutes
		6.8.5 Egg-Processing Industries
		6.8.6 Edible Oil Production
	References