Enzyme-based Biosensors: Recent Advances and Applications in Healthcare

Preface
Acknowledgement
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1: Enzymatic Biosensors for Healthcare Applications
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Types of Enzymatic Biosensors
		1.2.1 Amperometric Biosensors
			1.2.1.1 First-Generation Amperometric Biosensors
			1.2.1.2 Second-Generation Amperometric Biosensors
			1.2.1.3 Third-Generation Amperometric Biosensors
		1.2.2 Optical Enzymatic Biosensors
			1.2.2.1 Absorbance Optical Biosensors
			1.2.2.2 Chemiluminescence
		1.2.3 Piezoelectric Enzymatic Biosensor
	1.3 Significance of Enzymes as Biomarkers
		1.3.1 Enzymes as Biomarker for Cardiovascular Diseases
		1.3.2 Enzymes as Biomarker for Liver Diseases
		1.3.3 Enzymes as Biomarker for Cancer
		1.3.4 Enzymes as Biomarkers for Other Diseases
	1.4 Enzymatic Biosensors for Various Diseases
		1.4.1 Biosensors for Cardiovascular Diseases
		1.4.2 Biosensors for Liver Diseases
		1.4.3 Biosensors for Diabetes
		1.4.4 Biosensors for Kidney Diseases
		1.4.5 Biosensors for Neurological Diseases
	1.5 Challenges and Future Scope
	1.6 Conclusion
	References
2: Choice of Enzyme Immobilization Matrices Used in Biosensor for Healthcare Applications
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 Required Properties of Matrices for Enzyme Function
	2.2 Variety of Reported Matrices
		2.2.1 Nanocellulose (CNC)/Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Nanocomposite
		2.2.2 AuNP/Silica Nanocomposite
		2.2.3 NCC/PEI/AuNP Nanocomposite
		2.2.4 Polydopamine/Magnetic-Chitin (MCT) Nanocomposite
		2.2.5 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) Nanoparticles
		2.2.6 Metallic Biosilica
		2.2.7 Graphene Oxide
		2.2.8 Chitosan/AuNP Nanocomposite
		2.2.9 SnO2 Hollow Nanotubes
		2.2.10 GCE/Clay/Glutaraldehyde Nanocomposite
		2.2.11 PB/Chitosan Nanocomposite
		2.2.12 Chitosan-Glutaraldehyde (GA) Nanocomposite
		2.2.13 Chitin/Lignin Nanocomposite
		2.2.14 Chitosan-Albumin-Based Macroporous Protein Cryogel (MPC)
		2.2.15 Poly-vinyl Resin Support
		2.2.16 PANI Film
		2.2.17 Polytyramine Films
		2.2.18 MoS2/TiO2/Au Nanocomposite
	2.3 Conclusion
	References
3: Enzymatic Biosensor Platforms for Diagnosis of Heart Diseases
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Cardiac Biomarkers
	3.3 Enzymatic Biosensors for the Detection of Cardiac Biomarkers
		3.3.1 Catalytic Biosensors for the Detection of Cardiac Biomarkers
			3.3.1.1 Cholesterol Biosensors
		3.3.2 Affinity Biosensors for the Detection of Cardiac Biomarkers
			3.3.2.1 Immunosensors
			3.3.2.2 Aptasensors
	3.4 Challenges and Future Prospects
	3.5 Conclusion
	References
4: Enzyme-Based Biosensor Platforms for Detection of Cancer
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Components of Biosensor
		4.1.2 Enzyme-Based Biosensors
		4.1.3 Cancer: Worldwide Burden
	4.2 Biosensor Platforms
		4.2.1 Types of Platforms
		4.2.2 Recent Advancements in Cancer Biosensors
		4.2.3 Challenges Faced and Their Troubleshooting
	4.3 Enzyme-Based Biosensors in Cancer Detection
		4.3.1 Signal Generation and Transduction Mechanisms
			4.3.1.1 Electrochemical Enzyme-Based Biosensor
			4.3.1.2 Optical Enzyme-Based Biosensor
			4.3.1.3 Piezoelectric Enzyme-Based Biosensor
		4.3.2 Reporter Molecules
			4.3.2.1 Metallic Nanoparticles
			4.3.2.2 Carbon-Based Nanoparticles
			4.3.2.3 Magnetic Nanoparticles
			4.3.2.4 Photonic Crystals
		4.3.3 Types of Cancer Diagnostics
		4.3.4 Challenges Faced and Their Troubleshooting
	4.4 Conclusion and Critical Thinking
	References
5: Enzymatic Biosensor Platforms for Early Diagnosis of Diabetes
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Principle of Enzymatic Glucose Biosensing
	5.3 Generations of Enzyme-Based Electrochemical Glucose Sensors
		5.3.1 First-Generation Glucose Biosensors
		5.3.2 Second-Generation Electrochemical Glucose Sensors
		5.3.3 Third-Generation Electrochemical Glucose Sensors
	5.4 Glucose Biosensors Based on Glucose Dehydrogenase
	5.5 Direct Monitoring of Blood Glucose Using Electrochemical Sensing
		5.5.1 Invasive Glucose Monitoring: Invasive-Based Glucose Biosensor
			5.5.1.1 Disposable Strip-Based Glucose Monitoring
			5.5.1.2 Implantable Biosensors for Continuous Glucose Mentoring
		5.5.2 Non-invasive Methods for Glucose Monitoring
			5.5.2.1 Glucose Monitoring in Tear and Saliva Samples
	5.6 Summary
	References
6: Enzymatic Biosensors for Detection of Pancreatitis
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Methods for the Detection of Pancreatitis
		6.2.1 Measurement of Amylase and Lipase Activities
			6.2.1.1 Amylase Activity
			6.2.1.2 Lipase Activity
			6.2.1.3 Methods for Measurement of Enzyme Activity
	6.3 Biosensors for the Detection of Pancreatitis
		6.3.1 Biosensor for the Estimation of Amylase Activity
			6.3.1.1 Electrochemical Biosensor
				6.3.1.1.1 Amperometric Type
				6.3.1.1.2 Potentiometric Type
				6.3.1.1.3 Chemiresistive Type
			6.3.1.2 Optical Biosensor
			6.3.1.3 Piezoelectric Biosensor
		6.3.2 Biosensor for the Detection of Lipase Activity
			6.3.2.1 Electrochemical Biosensor
				6.3.2.1.1 Amperometric Type
				6.3.2.1.2 Chemiresistive Type
			6.3.2.2 Optical Biosensor
			6.3.2.3 Piezoelectric Biosensors
	6.4 Challenges and Future Scopes
	6.5 Conclusions
	References
7: Enzymatic Biosensing Platforms for Gut Diseases
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Human Gut Microbiota
		7.2.1 Gut Microbiota and Diseases
	7.3 Enzymatic Biosensors for Gut Diseases Detection
		7.3.1 Glucose as Diabetes Biomarker
			7.3.1.1 Biosensors for Glucose Measuring
		7.3.2 Cardiovascular Disease Biomarkers
			7.3.2.1 Biosensors for Cardiovascular Disease
		7.3.3 Biosensors for Cancer Applications
	7.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
8: Enzymatic Biosensor Platforms for Non-infectious Diseases: Diagnosis of Metabolic Disorders
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Thyroid Disorders
		8.2.1 Electrochemical Methods
		8.2.2 Optical Methods
	8.3 Diabetes
		8.3.1 Biomarkers for Diabetes Mellitus
		8.3.2 Challenges
		8.3.3 Generation of Glucose Sensor
		8.3.4 Enzymes for Glucose Sensor
	8.4 Cancer
		8.4.1 Cancer Biomarker
		8.4.2 Biosensor for Cancer Detection
			8.4.2.1 Sensors for Breast Cancer
		8.4.3 Sensor for Lung Cancer
		8.4.4 Sensor for Ovarian Cancer
		8.4.5 Other Sensors for Cancer
	8.5 Cardiovascular Diseases
		8.5.1 Cardiac Biomarkers
		8.5.2 Cardiac Biosensors
	8.6 Liver-Related Disorders
		8.6.1 Electrochemical Detection of Alanine Aminotransferase
	8.7 Stress
	8.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
9: Protein-Based Biomarkers for the Diagnosis of Malaria in Point-of-Care Settings
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Histidine-Rich Protein II
		9.2.1 Genetic and Protein Structure of HRP II
		9.2.2 Types of HRP II Detection Systems
			9.2.2.1 Rapid Detection Tests
			9.2.2.2 Advanced Biosensors
	9.3 Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)
		9.3.1 Genetic and Protein Structure
		9.3.2 Types of LDH-Based Detection Schemes
	9.4 Other Promising Malaria Biomarkers
		9.4.1 Glutamate Dehydrogenase
			9.4.1.1 Aldolase
	9.5 Conclusion
	References
10: Enzymatic Biosensor Platforms for Infectious Disease Diagnosis: Focus on Tuberculosis and Neglected Tropical Diseases
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Overview
		10.1.2 Why Are Enzymes Useful as Biorecognition Elements?
	10.2 Biosensing Strategies in Infectious Diseases
		10.2.1 Novel Biomarkers for Infectious Diseases: The Role of Enzymes in Detection
		10.2.2 Enzymes as Detection Probes
		10.2.3 Enzyme-Catalyzed Amplification
		10.2.4 Tuberculosis Diagnosis
		10.2.5 NTDs´ Diagnosis
	10.3 Challenges with Enzymatic Biosensing
	10.4 Recent Progress in Enzyme-Based Biosensing
		10.4.1 Future Prospects of Enzyme-Based Biosensing
		10.4.2 Nanozymes for Biosensing
	10.5 Summary and Outlook
	References
11: Piezoelectric Biosensors in Healthcare
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Operating Principle of Piezoelectric Biosensor
	11.3 Types of Piezoelectric Biosensor
		11.3.1 Acoustic Wave Biosensors
		11.3.2 Cantilever Biosensors
		11.3.3 Piezoelectric Immunosensors
	11.4 Material Consideration for Piezoelectric Biosensors
		11.4.1 Inorganic Piezoelectric Materials
		11.4.2 Organic Piezoelectric Materials
	11.5 Piezoelectric Biosensor Applications
		11.5.1 Alzheimer´s Disease Detection
		11.5.2 Cancer Diagnosis
		11.5.3 Cardiovascular Diseases
		11.5.4 Coronavirus Detection
		11.5.5 Wearable Health Monitoring
		11.5.6 Biomechanical Energy Harvesting
	11.6 Conclusions
	11.7 Challenges and Future Scope
	References
12: Low-Cost Paper-Based Analytical Devices and Their Application in Healthcare System
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Paper-Based Point of Care Technology
	12.3 Paper-Based Microfluidic Technology
	12.4 Detection Methods
		12.4.1 Colorimetric Methods
			12.4.1.1 Enzyme Based Detection
			12.4.1.2 Paper-Based ELISA
			12.4.1.3 Gold and Silver Nanoparticles
		12.4.2 Chemiluminescence
		12.4.3 Fluorescence
		12.4.4 Electrochemistry
		12.4.5 Electrochemiluminescence (ECL)
	12.5 Applications of Paper-Based Diagnostics Test
		12.5.1 Sensing Method Used in Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices
		12.5.2 Colorimetric Detection
		12.5.3 Electrochemical Detection
		12.5.4 Chemiluminescence Detection
		12.5.5 Electro-chemiluminescence Detection
		12.5.6 Fluorescence
	12.6 Future of Paper-Based Diagnosis
	12.7 Conclusion
	References
13: Nano-inspired Point-of-Care Enzyme-Based Wearable Biosensors for Global Health Care
	13.1 Introduction to Noninvasive Wearable Health Care Diagnosis
	13.2 Biosensors
	13.3 Glucose Biosensors
	13.4 Noninvasive PoC Wearable Biosensors
		13.4.1 PoC Wearable Biosensors for Epidermis
		13.4.2 PoC Wearable Biosensors for Oral Cavity
		13.4.3 PoC Wearable Biosensors for Tears
		13.4.4 PoC Wearable Biosensors for Ears and Nose
	13.5 Conclusion and Future Projections
	References
14: Commercialized Enzymatic Biosensors in Healthcare Against the Conventional Methods
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 Biosensors and Healthcare: Need of Personalized Systems
		14.1.2 Classical Detection Methods and Its Applications
		14.1.3 Scope for Alternative Methods
		14.1.4 Why Enzyme Biosensors in Healthcare?
	14.2 Enzyme Biosensors: Design, Development, and Commercial Insights
		14.2.1 Enzyme Immobilization Strategies: A Brief Overview
			14.2.1.1 Factors to Consider Before Immobilization
				14.2.1.1.1 Support Materials: Choice and Characteristics
			14.2.1.2 Physical Adsorption
			14.2.1.3 Covalent Immobilization
			14.2.1.4 Chemical Cross-Linking
			14.2.1.5 Entrapment
		14.2.2 Recent Advances in Enzyme Immobilization on Various Platforms: Analytes of Clinical Significance
		14.2.3 Commercially Available Biosensors and Its Applicability
			14.2.3.1 Mediators Used in Commercial Biosensors
			14.2.3.2 Enzyme Immobilization on Test Strip
			14.2.3.3 Regulatory Aspects for a Commercialization of Biosensors
			14.2.3.4 Commercial Biosensors: Glucose
			14.2.3.5 Commercial Biosensors for Cholesterol
		14.2.4 Market Potential
	14.3 Enzyme Biosensors: A Peep to the Future
		14.3.1 Wearable Biosensors: Proof of Concept and Commercial Devices
	14.4 Conclusions
	References