Environmental Problem-Solving: Balancing Science and Politics Using Consensus Building Tools: Guided Readings and Assignments from MIT’s Training Program for Environmental Professionals

Cover
Front Matter
	Half-Title page
	Title page
	Copyright information
	Contents
	Acknowledgments
	Credits and Permission
Units
	Introduction
		Scenario Assignments
	Unit I Influencing the Environmental Policy-Making Process
		Introduction
		Commentaries and Reading Excerpts
			Steven Cohen — “Understanding Environmental Policy” and  “A Framework for Understanding the Environmental Policy Issue.” In Understanding Environmental Policy. New York: Columbia University Press.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 1 Understanding Environmental Policy
					Differing Perspectives on Environmental Policy
					Developing a Framework to Help Understand Environmental Issues
					Applying the Framework to a Set of Environmental Issues
					Toward an Interdisciplinary Understanding of Environmental and Sustainability Policy
				Chapter 2 A Framework for Understanding the Environmental Policy Issue
					Values
					Applying the Values Dimension of the Framework
					Environmental Politics
						Applying the Political Dimension of the Framework
						Science, Technology, and the Environment
						Applying the Science and Technology Dimension of the Framework
						Environmental Policy Design and Economic Factors as an Influence on Damaging Corporate and Private Behaviors
						Defining Regulation
						Policy Design: How to Develop and Implement a Regulatory Strategy
						The Tools of Strategic Regulation
						A Strategic Approach to Regulation
						Policy Design that Regulates Individual Behavior and Stimulates Social Learning
						Applying the Policy Design Dimension of the Framework
						Environmental and Sustainability Management
						Applying the Management Dimension of the Framework
					Next Steps
					Notes
			Michael Howlett, M. Ramesh and Anthony Perl — “Agenda-Setting,” “Policy Formulation and Policy Design, “Public Policy Decision-Making and Policy Implementation” and “Policy Evaluation: Policy Making as Learning.” In Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles &
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 4 Agenda-​Setting
					The Objective Construction of Policy Problems: The Role of Social Conditions and Structures
					The Subjective Construction of Policy Problems: The Role of Policy Actors and Paradigms
					Combining Ideas, Actors, and Structures in  Multi-​Variable Models of Agenda-​Setting
					Funnel of Causality
					Issue -Attention Cycles
					Modes of Agenda-​Setting
					Linking Agenda-​Setting Modes to Content: Policy Windows and Policy Monopolies
					Conclusion: Revisiting Agenda-​Setting Modes Through a Policy Subsystem Lens
					Notes
				Chapter 5 Policy Formulation: Policy Instruments and Policy Design
					What is Policy Formulation?
					The Phases of Policy Formulation
					The General Content of Policy Formulation
					The Substance of Policy Formulation: Policy Instruments
					Taxonomies of Policy Instruments
					Note
				Chapter 6 Public Policy Decision-​Making
					Actors in the Decision-​Making Process
					Choices: Negative, Positive, and Non-​Decisions
				Chapter 7 Policy Implementation
					Actors and Activities in Policy Implementation
				Chapter 8 Policy Evaluation: Policy-​Making as Learning
					Positivist and Post-​Positivist Policy Evaluation
					Policy Evaluation as Policy Learning
					Evidence-​Based Policy-​Making as Policy Learning
					Assessing Policy Success or Failure
			Lawrence Susskind — “The Environment and Environmentalism.” In Local Planning: Contemporary Principles and Practice. Washington, DC: ICCMA Press.
				Reading Commentary
				The Environment and Environmentalism
					The Costs of Mismanaging Natural Resources
					Individual and Collective Responsibility for the Environment
					Environmental Planning at the Local Level
					A Values-Based Approach
					Collaborative Environmental Decision Making
					Tools for Environmental Planning
					New Kinds of Partnerships
					No Right Answers, Only Informed Agreements
					Note
			Elinor Ostrom — “The Future of the Commons: Beyond Market Failure and Government Regulations.” In The Future of the Commons: Beyond Market Failure and Government Regulations. London: Institute of Economic Affairs.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 3 The Future of the Commons: Beyond Market Failure and Government Regulation
					Introduction
					Challenges in Achieving Sustainability
					The Importance of Second-​Tier Variables
					Questions that can be Addressed in our Research Framework
					Design Principles for the Management of Natural Resource Systems
					What have we Learned?
					The Relationship Between Larger and Smaller Units of Governance
					Conclusion
		Scenario Assignment: Policy Evaluation
		Scenario Assignment: Comparative Policy Analysis
		End of Unit I Written Assignment: National Environmental Policy-​Making
			First Example Response to Assignment:  National Environmental Policy-​Making in the United Kingdom
			Second Example Response to Assignment:  A Model of Environmental Policy-​Making in the United States
	Unit II Ethical Dilemmas in Environmental Problem-Solving
		Introduction
		Commentaries and Reading Excerpts
			Joseph R. DesJardins — Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy. Belmont: Wadsworth.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 2 Part 2.2 Philosophical Ethics: Getting Comfortable With the Topic
				Chapter 3 Part 3.7 Ethical Analysis and Environmental Economics
				Chapter 5 Part 5.5 Do Trees Have Standing?
				Chapter 6 Part 6.2 Instrumental Value and Intrinsic Value
				Chaper 9 Part 9.2 Deep Ecology
					Part 9.3 The Deep Ecology Platform
					Part 9.4 Metaphysical Ecology
					Part 9.7 Criticisms of Deep Ecology
				Notes
			Jason Corburn — “Local Knowledge in Environmental Health Policy.” In Street Science: Community Knowledge and Environmental Health Justice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 1 Local Knowledge In Environmental Health policy
					The Tensions Between Communities and Professionals
					Antecedents to Street Science
					Environmental-​Health Justice and Street Science
					Democracy and Local Knowledge
					Technocracts, Science, and Local Knowledge
					The Co-​Production of Expertise
					Street Science as a Practice
					Notes
		Scenario Assignment: The Precautionary Principle
		Scenario Assignment:  Sustainability versus Economic Development
		Scenario Assignment: Local Knowledge versus Expert Knowledge
		End of Unit II Written Assignment: Environmental Ethics
			First Example Response to Assignment: Environmental Ethics and Sustainable Development
			Second Example Response to Assignment: The Ethics of Sustainable Development
	Unit III Developments in Policy and Project Analysis
		Introduction
		Commentaries and Reading Excerpts
			Lawrence Susskind, Ravi K. Jain and Andrew O. Martyniuk — “How Environmental Policy Studies Can Be Used Effectively” and “How Policy Studies Should Be Organized.” In Better Environmental Policy Studies. Washington, DC: Island Press.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 3 How Environmental Policy Studies Can be Used Effectively
					Six Effective Policy Studies
					The “Uses” of Effective Policy Studies
						The Spotted Owl and Ecosystem Management in the Pacific Northwest
					The Challenges
					Concluding Remarks
				Chapter 4 How Policy Studies Should Be Organized
					Six Organizational Tasks
						Selecting and Using Experts
						Shaping the Relationship Between Sponsors and Experts
						Choosing the Right Institutional Auspices
						Reviewing Policy Study Results
						Learning from Policy Studies
						Setting the Policy Research Agenda
						A Look in the Rearview Mirror
						Concluding Remarks
			Arwin van Buuren and Sibout Nooteboom — “Evaluating Strategic Environmental Assessment in The Netherlands: Content, Process and Procedure as Indissoluble Criteria for Effectiveness.” Journal of Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal.
				Reading Commentary
				Evaluating Strategic Environmental Assessment in the Netherlands: Content, Process and Procedure as Indissoluble Criteria for Effectiveness
					Characteristics of an Effective Sea
					Criteria for Sea Effectiveness
					Methodology
					Case Studies
						Southern Sea Line
						Analysis
					IJssel Delta South
						Analysis
					Case comparison
					Conclusion and discussion
					References
			David Pearce, Giles Atkinson and Susana Mourato — “Executive Summary,” “The Stages of Practical Cost-Benefit Analysis” and “Cost-Benefit Analysis and Other Decision-Making Procedures.” In Cost Benefit Analysis and the Environment: Recent Developments. Par
				Reading Commentary
				Cost-​Benefit Analysis and the Environment Recent Developments
					Introduction
					History and Uses of CBA
					Theoretical Foundations
					The Stages of CBA
					Decision Rules
					Dealing with Costs
					Total Economic Value
					Revealed Preference Valuation
					Stated Preference Valuation: Contingent Valuation
					Stated Preference Valuation: Choice Modelling
					Option Value
					WTP Versus WTA?
					Valuing Ecosystem Services
					Discounting
					Valuing Health and Life
					Equity
					Sustainability and CBA
					Benefits Transfer
					CBA and Other Decision-​Making Guidance
					Some Political Economy
					3.1. Achieving Air Quality Targets in Europe
				Chapter 18 Cost-Benefit Analysis and Other Decision-​Making Procedures
					18.1. A gallery of Procedures
					18.2. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
					18.3. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)
					18.4. Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
					18.5. Risk Assessment (RA)
					18.6. Comparative Risk Assessment (CRA)
					18.7. Risk-​Benefit Analysis (RBA)
					18.8. Risk-​Risk Analysis (RRA)
					18.9. Health-​Health Analysis (HHA)
					18.10. Cost-​Effectiveness Analysis (CEA)
					18.11. Multi-​Criteria Analysis (MCA)
					18.12. Summary and Guidance for Decision-​Makers
					Annex 18.A1 Multi-​criteria Analysis and the “Do Nothing” Option
			Robert Costanza, Rudolf de Groot, Paul Sutton, Sander van der Ploeg, Sharolyn J. Anderson, Ida Kubiszewski, Stephen Farber, R. Kerry Turner —“Changes in the Global Value of Ecosystem Services.” Journal of Global Environmental Change.
				Reading Commentary
				Changes in the Global Value of Ecosystem Services
					1. Introduction
					2. What is Valuation?
					3. Valuation is not Privatization
					4. Uses of Valuation of Ecosystem Services
					5. Aggregating Values
					6. Estimates of Global Value
					7. Caveats and Misconceptions
					8. Conclusions
					References
			Donald Ludwig — “Limitations of Economic Valuation of Ecosystems.” Ecosystems Journal.
				Reading Commentary
				Limitations of Economic Valuation of Ecosystems
					Introduction
					Higher Domains of Value
					Economic Assumptions are Often Inappropriate
					Market Measures or Surveys are Inappropriate for Decisions that Involve Important Ecological Questions
					The Methods Used for Economic Valuation are Flawed
					Bluff and Bluster
					References
			Howard Kunreuther and Paul Slovic — “Challenges in Risk Assessment and Risk Management.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.
				Reading Commentary
				Challenges in Risk Assessment and Risk Management
					The Need for a New Perspective
					Organization of this volume
						Uncertainty and Risk Assessment
						Valuation and Risk
						Risk Communication
						The Process of Risk Management
						Risk Management Strategies
			John Sterman — “A Skeptic’s Guide to Computer Models.” In Managing a Nation: The Microcomputer Software Catalog. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
				Reading Commentary
				A Skeptic’s Guide to Computer Models
					The Inevitability of Using Models
					Mental and Computer Models
					The Importance of Purpose
					Two Kinds of Models: Optimization Versus Simulation and Econometrics
						Optimization
						Simulation
					Econometrics
					Checklist for the Model Consumer
					Conclusions
					References
			“Scenario Planning,” “Scenario Methodology” and “Driving Forces.” In Puget Sound Future Scenarios. UW Urban Ecology Research Lab, University of Washington.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 3 Scenario Planning UW Urban Ecology Research Lab
					Why Scenarios?
					What is Scenario Planning?
					How to Develop Scenarios
					Dealing with Uncertainty
					The Benefits and Limitations of Scenarios
				Chapter 4 Scenario Methodology
					Process
						Participating Experts
						Interviews
						Workshop
						Synthesis
					Scenario Development
						Focal Issue
						Driving Forces
						Uncertainty and Importance
						Scenario Logics
						Scenario Narratives
					The Four Elements used to Synthesize the Final Scenarios
						Key Drivers
						Supporting Trajectories
						Storylines
						System State
				Chapter 5 Driving Forces
					Overview
		Scenario Assignment: Cost-Benefit Analysis
		Role-Play Exercise Assignment: Negotiating Societal Risk Assessment
		End of Unit III Written Assignment:  Environmental Assessment
			First Example Response to Assignment: Strengths, Weaknesses and Policy Implications of Environmental Analysis Tools
			Second Example Response to Assignment: Environmental Management Can Be Enhanced through Analytical Tools
	Unit IV Collective Action to Solve Environmental Problems
		Introduction
		Commentaries and Reading Excerpts
			Lawrence Susskind and Jeffrey Cruikshank — “Convening,” “Assigning Roles and Responsibilities,” “Facilitating Group Problem Solving,” “Reaching Agreement” and “Holding Parties to Their Commitments.” In Breaking Robert’s Rules. Oxford: Oxford University Pr
				Reading Commentary
				Step 1 Convening
					1.1 Initiate Discussion with Potential Organizer(s)
					1.2 Initiate an Assessment
					1.3 Use the Assessment to Identify Appropriate Stakeholder Representatives
					1.4 Finalize Commitments to Involve Appropriate Stakeholder Representatives if a Consensus-​Building Process goes Forward
					1.5 Decide Whether to Commit to CBA
					1.6 Make Sure that those in Positions of Authority Agree to the Process
				Step 2 Assigning Roles and Responsibilities
					2.1 Specify Who will take Responsibility for Convening, Facilitating, Recording, Moderating or Chairing Meetings, Representing Key Stakeholder Groups, and Providing Expert Advice
					2.2 Set Rules Regarding the Involvement of Alternates and Observers
					2.3 Finalize the Agenda, Ground Rules, Work Plan, and Budget in Written Form (For Public or Organizational Review)
					2.4 Assess Options for Communicating with the Constituencies Represented as Well as with the Community-​at-Large
				Step 3 Facilitating Group Problem Solving
					3.1 Strive for Transparency (Distribute Written Summaries of all Meetings)
					3.2 Seek Expert Input when Joint Fact-Finding Might be Helpful
					3.3 Create Working Subcommittees if Appropriate
					3.4 Seek to Maximize Joint Gains Through the Brainstorming of Packages
					3.5 Separate Inventing from Committing
					3.6 Use the Help of a Skilled Facilitator
					3.7 Use a Single-​Text Procedure
					3.8 Modify the Agenda, Ground Rules, and Deadlines as You Go
				Step 4 Reaching Agreement
					4.1 Seek Unanimity on a Written Package of Commitments
					4.2 Use Contingent Commitments, if Appropriate, to Deal with Uncertainty or Risk
					4.3 Adhere to Agreed-​Upon Decision-​Making Procedures
						4.3.1 Ask Who Can’t Live with the Package
						4.3.2 Ask those who object to suggest improvements That Would Make the Package Acceptable to Them Without Making it Unacceptable to Others
					4.4 Keep a Written Record of All Agreements
					4.5 Maintain Communication with All Relevant Constituents and the Community-​At-​Large
				Step 5 Holding Parties to Their Commitments
					5.1 Seek Ratification of the Draft Agreement by Checking Back with All Relevant Constituencies
					5.2 At a Final Meeting, Ask All the Stakeholder Representatives to Indicate Their Personal Support for the Package by Signing the Agreement
					5.3 Present the Recommended Package of Proposals to Those With the Formal Authority to Act
						5.3.1 Look for Ways to Make Informally Negotiated Agreements Binding
					5.4 Reconvene the Parties it Those in Authority Can Not Live with the Package to See What Changes Might be Possible
					5.5 Monitor Changing Circumstances During Implementation and Reconvene if Necessary
			Ian Shapiro —​ “Aggregation, Deliberation, and the Common Good.” In State of Democratic Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 1 Aggregation, Deliberation, and the Common Good
					1.1 Aggregative Conceptions of the Common Good
						1.1.1 Democracy’s Alleged Irrationality
						1.1.2 Competing Views of Rational Collective Decision
						1.1.3 The Likelihood of Cycles
						1.1.4 Privileging Unanimity Rule
						1.1.5 The Likelihood of Majority Tyranny
					1.2 Deliberative Conceptions of the Common Good
						1.2.1 Reciprocal Deliberation as the Common Good
						1.2.2 Deliberation and Conflicting Interests
						1.2.3 The Context of Deliberation
					1.3 Deliberation in Ideal Settings?
					Notes
			Mark Sagoff —​ “At the Shrine of Lady Fatima; Why Political Questions Are Not All Economic.” In The Economy of the Earth: Philosophy, Law, and the Environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 2 At the Shrine of Our Lady of Fatima; or, Why political questions are not all economic
					What We Want Versus What We Are
					What Is Cost-​Benefit Analysis?
					Two Conceptions of Externalities
					Efficiency and Equality
					Values as Wants
					Two Conceptions of Neutrality
					Notes
			Lawrence Susskind and Connie Ozawa —​ “Mediated Negotiation in the Public Sector: The Planner as Mediator.” Journal of Planning Education and Research.
				Reading Commentary
				Mediated Negotiation in the Public Sector: The Planner as Mediator
					Introduction
					Some Illustrative Cases
						The Columbus Negotiated Investment Strategy (NIS)
						Brayton Point Coal Conversion
						Foothills Water Treatment Project
					A New Conception of the Planner’s Role
					Finding an Appropriate Model
						Labor Relations
						International Relations
						Community Dispute Resolution
						Environmental Dispute Resolution
					Concluding Observations
					References
			Eugene A. Rosa, Ortwin Renn and Aaron McCright —​ “Risk Governance: A Synthesis.” In Risk Society Revisited: Social Theory and Governance. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 9 Risk Governance a Synthesis
					Beyond Government: The Need for Comprehensive Governance
					From Government to Governance
					From Simple to Systemic Risks
					Lessons for Risk Governance
						Pre-​Estimation
						Interdisciplinary Risk Estimation
						Risk Evaluation
						Risk Management
						Risk Communication and Participation
					Conclusion
					Notes
			Garrett Hardin —​ “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Science Journal
				Reading Commentary
				The Tragedy of the Commons
					What Shall We Maximize?
					Tragedy of Freedom in a Commons
					Pollution
					How to Legislate Temperance?
					Freedom to Breed is Intolerable
					Conscience is Self-​Eliminating
					Pathogenic Effects of Conscience
					Mutual Coercion
						Mutually Agreed Upon
					Recognition of Necessity
					Note
					References
			Elinor Ostrom —​ “Reflections on the Commons.” In Governing the Commons. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
				Reading Commentary
				Chapter 1 Reflections on the Commons
					Three Influential Models
						The Tragedy of the Commons
						The Prisoner’s Dilemma Game
						The Metaphorical Use of Models
						Current Policy Prescriptions
						A Challenge
						Notes
		Scenario Assignment: Public Participation Strategies
		Scenario Assignment: Regional Consensus Building
		Scenario Assignment: Environmental Dispute Resolution
		End of Unit IV Written Assignment:  Public Interest and Group Decision-​Making
			First Example Response to Assignment: Public Interest and the Consensus Building Approach
			Second Example Response to Assignment: Democracy and Environmental Decision-​Making
	Final Exam
		Questions
		Sample Responses to Select Exam Questions
	Conclusions
End Matter
	Biographies
	References
	Index