Environmental Physics: Sustainable Energy and Climate Change

Environmental Physics......Page 3
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 15
Acknowledgements......Page 17
1.1 A Sustainable Energy Supply......Page 19
1.2 The Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change......Page 21
1.3 Light Absorption in Nature as a Source of Energy......Page 22
1.4 The Contribution of Science: Understanding, Modelling and Monitoring......Page 23
References......Page 24
2.1.1 Radiation from a Black Body......Page 25
2.1.2 Emission Spectrum of the Sun......Page 27
2.2.1 Electric Dipole Moments of Transitions......Page 30
2.2.2 Einstein Coefficients......Page 32
2.2.3 Absorption of a Beam of Light: Lambert-Beer’s Law......Page 34
2.3 Ultraviolet Light and Biomolecules......Page 37
2.3.1 Spectroscopy of Biomolecules......Page 38
2.3.2 Damage to Life from Solar UV......Page 39
2.3.3 The Ozone Filter as Protection......Page 40
References......Page 46
3 Climate and Climate Change......Page 49
3.1 The Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere......Page 50
3.2 The Radiation Balance and the Greenhouse Effect......Page 54
3.2.1 Simple Changes in the Radiation Balance......Page 57
3.2.2 Radiation Transfer......Page 59
3.2.3 A Simple Analytical Model......Page 62
3.2.4 Radiative Forcing and Global Warming......Page 63
3.2.5 The Greenhouse Gases......Page 66
3.3 Dynamics in the Climate System......Page 69
3.3.1 Horizontal Motion of Air......Page 71
3.3.2 Vertical Motion of Ocean Waters......Page 76
3.4 Natural Climate Variability......Page 77
3.5 Modelling Human-Induced Climate Change......Page 80
3.5.1 The Carbon Cycle......Page 81
3.5.2 Structure of Climate Modelling......Page 84
3.5.3 Modelling the Atmosphere......Page 85
3.7 Forecasts of Climate Change......Page 88
Exercises......Page 92
References......Page 94
4 Heat Engines......Page 95
4.1 Heat Transfer and Storage......Page 96
4.1.1 Conduction......Page 97
4.1.3 Radiation......Page 100
4.1.4 Phase Change......Page 101
4.1.5 The Solar Collector......Page 102
4.1.6 The Heat Diffusion Equation......Page 105
4.1.7 Heat Storage......Page 108
4.2.1 First and Second Laws......Page 109
4.2.2 Heat and Work; Carnot Efficiency......Page 113
4.2.3 Efficiency of a ‘Real’ Heat Engine......Page 115
4.2.4 Second Law Efficiency......Page 116
4.2.5 Loss of Exergy in Combustion......Page 119
4.3.1 Carnot Cycle......Page 121
4.3.2 Stirling Engine......Page 122
4.3.3 Steam Engine......Page 123
4.3.4 Internal Combustion......Page 125
4.3.5 Refrigeration......Page 128
4.4 Electricity as Energy Carrier......Page 131
4.4.1 Varying Grid Load......Page 132
4.4.2 Co-Generation of Heat and Electricity......Page 133
4.4.3 Storage of Electric Energy......Page 135
4.4.4 Transmission of Electric Power......Page 141
4.5.1 Nitrogen Oxides NOx......Page 143
4.5.3 CO and CO2......Page 144
4.5.4 Aerosols......Page 145
4.5.5 Volatile Organic Compounds VOC......Page 146
4.6 The Private Car......Page 147
4.6.1 Power Needs......Page 148
4.6.2 Automobile Fuels......Page 149
4.6.3 Three-Way Catalytic Converter......Page 150
4.6.4 Electric Car......Page 151
4.7.1 Capital Costs......Page 152
Exercises......Page 156
References......Page 160
5 Renewable Energy......Page 163
5.1.1 Varying Solar Input......Page 164
5.1.2 Electricity from Solar Heat: Concentrating Solar Power CSP......Page 168
5.1.3 Direct Conversion of Light into Electricity: Photovoltaics PV......Page 170
5.2 Energy from the Wind......Page 177
5.2.1 Betz Limit......Page 178
5.2.2 Aerodynamics......Page 180
5.2.4 Vertical Wind Profile......Page 183
5.2.5 Wind Statistics......Page 185
5.2.6 State of the Art and Outlook......Page 186
5.3.1 Power from Dams......Page 187
5.3.3 Power from Waves......Page 188
5.3.4 Power from the Tides......Page 192
5.4.1 Thermodynamics of Bio Energy......Page 193
5.4.3 Solar Efficiency......Page 198
5.4.4 Energy from Biomass......Page 200
5.5 Physics of Photosynthesis......Page 201
5.5.1 Basics of Photosynthesis......Page 202
5.5.2 Light-Harvesting Antennas......Page 203
5.5.3 Energy Transfer Mechanism......Page 205
5.5.4 Charge Separation......Page 208
5.5.6 Photoprotection......Page 211
5.5.7 Research Directions......Page 213
5.6.1 The Principle......Page 214
5.6.2 Efficiency......Page 217
5.6.3 New Developments and the Future......Page 220
5.7 Bio Solar Energy......Page 221
5.7.1 Comparison of Biology and Technology......Page 222
5.7.2 Legacy Biochemistry......Page 225
5.7.3 Artificial Photosynthesis......Page 227
5.7.5 Conclusion......Page 231
Exercises......Page 233
References......Page 235
6 Nuclear Power......Page 239
6.1.1 Principles......Page 240
6.1.2 Four Factor Formula......Page 244
6.1.3 Reactor Equations......Page 247
6.1.4 Stationary Reactor......Page 249
6.1.5 Time Dependence of a Reactor......Page 251
6.1.6 Reactor Safety......Page 252
6.1.7 Nuclear Explosives......Page 255
6.2 Nuclear Fusion......Page 256
6.3.1 Definitions......Page 262
6.3.2 Norms on Exposure to Radiation......Page 263
6.3.5 Health Aspects of Fusion......Page 265
6.4 Managing the Fuel Cycle......Page 266
6.4.2 Enrichment......Page 267
6.4.4 Reprocessing......Page 270
6.4.5 Waste Management......Page 271
6.4.6 Nonproliferation......Page 274
6.5 Fourth Generation Nuclear Reactors......Page 275
Exercises......Page 276
References......Page 277
7 Dispersion of Pollutants......Page 279
7.1.1 Diffusion Equation......Page 280
7.1.2 Point Source in Three Dimensions in Uniform Wind......Page 285
7.1.3 Effect of Boundaries......Page 287
7.2 Dispersion in Rivers......Page 288
7.2.1 One-Dimensional Approximation......Page 289
7.2.2 Influence of Turbulence......Page 293
7.2.3 Example: A Calamity Model for the Rhine River......Page 295
7.2.4 Continuous Point Emission......Page 296
7.2.5 Two Numerical Examples......Page 298
7.2.6 Improvements......Page 299
7.3 Dispersion in Groundwater......Page 300
7.3.1 Basic Definitions......Page 301
7.3.2 Darcy’s Equations......Page 304
7.3.3 Stationary Applications......Page 308
7.3.4 Dupuit Approximation......Page 313
7.3.5 Simple Flow in a Confined Aquifer......Page 316
7.3.6 Time Dependence in a Confined Aquifer......Page 319
7.3.7 Adsorption and Desorption of Pollutants......Page 320
7.4.1 Stress Tensor......Page 322
7.4.2 Equations of Motion......Page 326
7.4.3 Newtonian Fluids......Page 327
7.4.4 Navier-Stokes Equation......Page 328
7.4.5 Reynolds Number......Page 329
7.4.6 Turbulence......Page 331
7.5 Gaussian Plumes in the Air......Page 335
7.5.1 Statistical Analysis......Page 337
7.5.2 Continuous Point Source......Page 339
7.5.3 Gaussian Plume from a High Chimney......Page 340
7.5.4 Empirical Determination of the Dispersion Coefficients......Page 341
7.5.5 Semi-Empirical Determination of the Dispersion Parameters......Page 342
7.5.6 Building a Chimney......Page 343
7.6 Turbulent Jets and Plumes......Page 344
7.6.1 Dimensional Analysis......Page 346
7.6.2 Simple Jet......Page 347
7.6.3 Simple Plume......Page 349
Exercises......Page 351
References......Page 352
8.1 Overview of Spectroscopy......Page 355
8.1.2 Transition Dipole Moment: Selection Rules......Page 359
8.1.3 Linewidths......Page 360
8.2.1 One-Electron Atoms......Page 363
8.2.2 Many-Electron Atoms......Page 364
8.3.1 Rotational Transitions......Page 365
8.3.2 Vibrational Transitions......Page 367
8.3.3 Electronic Transitions......Page 371
8.4.1 Raman Scattering......Page 377
8.4.2 Resonance Raman Scattering......Page 378
8.4.3 Rayleigh Scattering......Page 379
8.5.2 SCIAMACHY’s Operation......Page 380
8.5.3 Analysis......Page 382
8.6 Remote Sensing by Lidar......Page 386
8.6.1 Lidar Equation and DIAL......Page 387
8.6.2 Range-Resolved Cloud and Aerosol Optical Properties......Page 389
Exercises......Page 394
References......Page 395
9 The Context of Society......Page 397
9.1.1 Energy Consumption......Page 398
9.1.2 Energy Consumption and Resources......Page 400
9.1.3 Energy Efficiency......Page 401
9.1.4 Comparing Energy Resources......Page 402
9.1.5 Energy Options......Page 405
9.1.6 Conclusion......Page 406
9.3 Risks......Page 407
9.3.1 Small Concentrations of Harmful Chemicals......Page 408
9.3.2 Acceptable Risks......Page 410
9.3.3 Small Probability for a Large Harm......Page 411
9.3.4 Dealing with Uncertainties......Page 412
9.4.2 Protection of Climate......Page 414
9.5.1 Self-Organized Criticality......Page 416
9.6.1 Nature of Science......Page 419
9.6.3 Aims of Science......Page 420
9.6.4 A New Social Contract between Science and Society......Page 422
Social questions......Page 423
References......Page 424
Appendix A: Physical and Numerical Constants......Page 427
Appendix B: Vector Algebra......Page 429
Appendix C: Gauss, Delta and Error Functions......Page 437
Appendix D: Experiments in a Student’s Lab......Page 441
Appendix E: Web Sites......Page 443
Appendix F: Omitted Parts of the Second Edition......Page 445
Index......Page 447
Color Plate......Page 459