Environmental Impact of Polymers

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 15
Introduction......Page 17
 1.2. Socio-political aspects of the two controversies in the scientific literature......Page 41
 1.3. Plastics in the French media: a small sample......Page 45
  1.3.1. The written press: endocrine disruption......Page 46
  1.3.2. Plastics in general......Page 47
   1.3.3.1. Endocrine disruptors......Page 49
 1.4. Conclusion......Page 50
 1.6. Bibliography......Page 51
  2.2.1. Reduction at source......Page 53
  2.2.2. Hierarchy of choice of valorization......Page 55
  2.2.3. Inventory......Page 57
  2.2.5. The recycling chain......Page 58
  2.2.6. Physical recycling in solution......Page 60
  2.2.8. Chemical recycling......Page 61
  2.2.9. Energetic valorization......Page 62
  2.2.10. Landfilling......Page 63
 2.4. Bibliography......Page 64
 3.1. Introduction......Page 67
  3.2.1. Methods......Page 68
  3.2.2. Nature and quantity of litter reaching the sea......Page 70
  3.2.3. Sources......Page 71
  3.2.4. Fate and distribution......Page 73
  3.2.5. Oceanic convergence zone......Page 74
 3.3. The degradation of litter at sea......Page 75
 3.4. The effect of marine litter on the environment......Page 77
  3.5.1. Legal aspects (laws, conventions and directives)......Page 80
  3.5.2. Initiatives......Page 83
 3.6. Conclusion......Page 85
 3.8. Bibliography......Page 86
  4.1.1. An antiplastic crisis with often paradoxical consequences......Page 89
  4.1.2. The world as it is … 2030......Page 90
   4.1.3.2. Conserving water resources and creating more......Page 92
   4.1.3.3. Reducing energy needs......Page 93
  4.2.1. Plastics and their ignored positives effects on the preservation of the environment......Page 94
  4.2.2. Lightweight plastic, a quality that induces environmental performance......Page 95
  4.2.4. How plastics will prevail in the future energy solution?......Page 96
  4.2.5. Plastics at the heart of technological advancement......Page 97
  4.3.1. Environmental issues, the European plastics industrial acts......Page 98
  4.3.2. From polluting plastics to non-disposable plastics......Page 99
  4.3.3. Recycling and valorization: the French cultural handicap......Page 100
  4.3.4. Bisphenol A or how to spread anxiety and misinformation......Page 101
  4.3.5. Bioplastics: from advertising to reality......Page 102
 4.5. Bibliography......Page 103
  5.1.1. The chemical industry mobilized to deal with global upsets......Page 105
  5.1.2. New stresses being exerted on industrial chemistry......Page 107
  5.2.1. Eco-design: some definitions......Page 109
  5.2.2. Lifecycle assessment: definitions and concept......Page 110
  5.2.3. Definition of the goals and scope of the lifecycle assessment......Page 112
  5.2.4. Lifecycle inventory analysis......Page 113
  5.2.5. Lifecycle impact assessment......Page 114
  5.2.6. Lifecycle interpretation......Page 115
 5.3. Green chemistry and eco-design......Page 118
 5.4. Limitations of the tool......Page 119
  5.4.1. Importance of the hypotheses......Page 121
  5.4.2. Relevance of the inventory data......Page 123
  5.4.4. The choice to recycle......Page 124
 5.5. Conclusions: the future of eco-design......Page 125
 5.6. Bibliography......Page 127
 6.1. Introduction......Page 131
  6.2.1. Overview of methods used and results obtained......Page 132
  6.2.2. Limitations of the LCA methodology for the study of bioplastics......Page 137
  6.3.1. The twelve principles of green chemistry: a reference framework......Page 138
  6.3.2. Examples of use of this referential framework......Page 139
  6.3.3. Practical case study: Bio-PET, decryption of a communication and avenues for improvement......Page 144
 6.5. Bibliography......Page 145
  6.5.1. Websites......Page 147
 7.1. Introduction......Page 149
   7.2.2.1. Perimeter......Page 150
   7.2.2.2. Method and indicators......Page 151
   7.2.2.3. Environmental evaluation for 1 kg of material (FU1)......Page 152
   7.2.2.4. Environmental evaluation for the lifecycle of the materials (FU2)......Page 154
    7.2.2.5.2. Limitations of LCA for environmental characterization of materials......Page 156
 7.4. Conclusion......Page 157
 7.5. Bibliography......Page 158
 8.1. Introduction......Page 159
  8.2.1. Functional analysis of a bottle......Page 160
  8.3.1. Expression of the specifications......Page 164
   8.3.2.4. Optical properties......Page 169
   8.3.2.6. Suitability for processing......Page 170
   8.3.2.7. Properties relating to environmental impact......Page 171
 8.4. Suitability for processing......Page 178
 8.5. Integration of an environmental criterion......Page 187
 8.6. Conclusion......Page 191
 8.7. Appendix: modeling of cost index [ESA 03]......Page 193
 8.8. Bibliography......Page 194
 9.1. Introduction......Page 195
   9.2.1.1. Biodegradability and compostability......Page 197
   9.2.1.2. Origin of carbon and sustainable development......Page 199
  9.2.2. Classifications of biodegradable polymers......Page 200
   9.2.3.1. Introduction......Page 201
    9.2.3.2.1. Polylactic acid (PLA)......Page 202
    9.2.3.2.2. Polyhydroxylalkanoates (PHAs)......Page 205
    9.2.3.3.1. Polycaprolactone (PCL)......Page 209
    9.2.3.3.3. Aromatic copolyesters......Page 210
   9.2.4.2. Native starch......Page 211
  9.3.1. General points......Page 213
  9.3.2. Implementation and rheology of plasticized starch......Page 214
   9.3.3.3. Effect of water and non-volatile plasticizing agent on the behavior of plasticized starch......Page 216
  9.3.4. Issues and strategies......Page 218
  9.4.2. Plasticized starch-based blends......Page 220
  9.4.3. Plasticized starch-based multilayers......Page 223
   9.4.4.1. Biocomposites based on (ligno)cellulosic fibers......Page 225
  9.4.5. The case of plasticized starch-based nanobiocomposites......Page 226
    9.4.5.1.1. Cellulose whiskers......Page 227
    9.4.5.2.1. Montmorillonite-based nanobiocomposite structures......Page 228
    9.4.5.2.2. Properties of montmorillonite-based nanobiocomposites......Page 229
 9.6. Bibliography......Page 231
 10.2. General points about the lifecycle of plastics......Page 241
 10.3. Energy......Page 242
  10.4.1. Minimizing waste......Page 244
  10.4.2. Favoring sustainable and renewable......Page 245
 10.5. The solution of ecoplastics......Page 249
   10.6.1.2. Structure of starch......Page 250
   10.6.1.3. Functionalization of starch by the action of formic acid......Page 252
   10.6.1.4. Starch formate/PCL mixture......Page 256
   10.6.2.1. Mechanical properties......Page 258
   10.6.2.2. Measuring the biodegradability of starch/PCL mixtures by respirometry......Page 259
  10.7.1. Sources of plastic waste......Page 261
  10.7.3. Recyclability of bisphenol A poly(carbonate) waste......Page 263
   10.7.3.1. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)......Page 264
   10.7.3.2. Rheological analysis......Page 266
   10.7.3.3. Analysis of UV irradiation resistance......Page 268
   10.7.4.1. Conditioning of materials and mixture......Page 270
   10.7.4.2. Mechanical characterization......Page 272
   10.7.5.1. Electrical conductivity of rPC/CR mixtures......Page 274
   10.7.5.2. Thermoresistive effect of rPC/CR mixtures for self-regulating heating......Page 276
   10.7.5.3. Chemo-resistive effect of rPC/CR mixtures for detection of VOCs......Page 278
 10.9. Acknowledgments......Page 279
 10.10. Bibliography......Page 280
 11.1. Why do we use plastics?......Page 285
 11.2. What are the regulations governing the “end of life” of plastics?......Page 286
  11.2.1. Compounding of collected plastic......Page 289
 11.3. Armed with these observations, how did we proceed?......Page 290
  11.3.1. List of problems encountered......Page 292
 11.4. Conclusion......Page 294
 12.1. Introduction......Page 297
  12.2.1. Mechanical recycling with energy recovery......Page 300
  12.2.2. Bio-based polymers......Page 304
 12.3. Social acceptability of recycled and bio-based polymers......Page 306
 12.4. Formulation examples of blends based on recycled PA and bio-based PA and their toxicological considerations......Page 307
 12.5. Conclusion......Page 308
 12.6. Bibliography......Page 309
 13.1. Introduction......Page 313
  13.2.1. Evidence for migration......Page 314
  13.2.2. Food contamination pathways......Page 317
  13.2.3. Aggravating factors of contamination......Page 319
  13.3.1. European regulation and its limits......Page 320
   13.3.2.2. Material balance in the case of multilayer materials......Page 323
   13.3.2.3. Practical applications of modeling......Page 326
   13.3.3.1. Harmonized risk assessment......Page 328
   13.3.3.2. Evaluating the severity of an industrial stage......Page 330
   13.3.3.3. Concurrent engineering......Page 333
  13.4.1. Packaging-food partition coefficients......Page 335
  13.4.2. Diffusion scaling laws......Page 339
 13.5. Conclusion......Page 344
 13.6. Bibliography......Page 345
  14.1.1. Introduction......Page 349
  14.1.3. Stages of biodegradation......Page 350
   14.1.3.2. Second stage: degradation of the material......Page 351
   14.1.3.3. Third stage: bioassimilation of material......Page 353
   14.1.4.2. Estimation by measuring weight loss......Page 354
   14.1.4.3. Estimation by image analysis (non-normative methodology)......Page 355
   14.1.4.5. Estimation by observing the development of fungal micro-organisms and or/bacteria on the polymer surface......Page 356
   14.1.4.6. Estimation by ATP assay (non-normative methodology)......Page 357
   14.1.4.7. Estimation by enzymatic assay (non-normative methodology)......Page 358
   14.1.4.8. Estimation by respirometric analyses......Page 359
    14.1.4.8.2. Respirometric test on a liquid anaerobic medium with the measurement of emitted biogases......Page 362
    14.1.4.8.4. Respirometric test in a liquid aerobic medium with the measurement of CO2 released8......Page 364
    14.1.4.8.5. Respirometric test on an aerobic solid medium by measuring CO2 released......Page 366
  14.1.5. Specific study of polyolefins added to pro-oxidants......Page 369
  14.1.6. Examples......Page 371
  14.2.1. Compostability......Page 372
   14.2.2.3. Disintegration......Page 373
  14.3.3. Is it acceptable to say that “my product is compostable”?......Page 375
  14.3.8. Can I “officially” declare that my material is biodegradable based on one or several (non-) respirometric and (non-) standardized tests of biodegradation?......Page 376
 14.4. Conclusion......Page 377
 14.5. Bibliography......Page 378
  14.5.1. Reference material......Page 379
 15.1. Introduction......Page 381
 15.2. Obstacles in the legal regulation of nanomaterials......Page 382
  15.2.1. Scientific and technical challenges......Page 383
  15.2.2. Legal issues......Page 386
  15.3.1. Legal regulation initiated by voluntary measures......Page 389
  15.3.2. Legal regulation prolonged by technical modifications to the REACH legislation......Page 391
  15.3.3. Legal regulation consolidated by non-technical amendments to sector legislation......Page 393
 15.4. Conclusion......Page 395
 15.5. Bibliography......Page 396
 16.1. Introduction......Page 397
  16.2.1. The need for the rigorous quantification of energy......Page 398
  16.2.2. The problem of flow management......Page 399
 16.3. Conclusion......Page 400
List of Authors......Page 403
Index......Page 405