Environmental geology

Cover Page
Units of Measurement-Conversions
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Preface
Table of Content
SECTION I FOUNDATIONS
	CHAPTER 1 Planet and Population: An Overview
		Earth in Space and Time
			The Early Solar System
			The Planets
			Earth, Then and Now
			Life on Earth
		Geology, Past and Present
			The Geologic Perspective
			Geology and the Scientific Method
			The Motivation to Find Answers
			Wheels Within Wheels: Earth Cycles and Systems
		Nature and Rate of Population Growth
			Growth Rates: Causes and Consequences
			Growth Rate and Doubling Time
		Impacts of the Human Population
			Farmland and Food Supply
			Population and Nonfood Resources
			Uneven Distribution of People and Resources
			Disruption of Natural Systems
		Case Study 1 Earth’s Moon
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 2 Rocks and Minerals— A First Look Case Study 1 Earth’s Moon
		Atoms, Elements, Isotopes, Ions, and Compounds
			Atomic Structure
			Elements and Isotopes
			Ions
			The Periodic Table
			Compounds
		Minerals—General
			Minerals Defined
			Identifying Characteristics of Minerals
			Other Physical Properties of Minerals
		Types of Minerals
			Silicates
			Nonsilicates
		Rocks
		Case Study 2 Asbestos—A Tangled Topic
			Igneous Rocks
			Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
			Metamorphic Rocks
			The Rock Cycle
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
SECTION II INTERNAL PROCESS
	CHAPTER 3 Plate Tectonics
		Plate Tectonics—Accumulating Evidence
			The Topography of the Sea Floor
			Magnetism in Rocks—General
			Paleomagnetism and Seafl oor Spreading
			Age of the Ocean Floor
			Polar-Wander Curves
		Plate Tectonics—Underlying Concepts
			Stress and Strain in Geologic Materials
			Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
			Locating Plate Boundaries
		Types of Plate Boundaries
			Divergent Plate Boundaries
			Convergent Plate Boundaries
			Transform Boundaries
		How Far, How Fast, How Long, How Come?
			Past Motions, Present Velocities
			Why Do Plates Move?
		Case Study 3 New Theories for Old—Geosynclines and Plate Tectonics
		Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 4 Earthquakes
		Earthquakes—Terms and Principles
			Basic Terms
			Types of Faults
			Earthquake Locations
		Seismic Waves and Earthquake Severity
			Seismic Waves
			Locating the Epicenter
			Magnitude and Intensity
		Earthquake-Related Hazards and Their Reduction
			Ground Motion
			Ground Failure
			Tsunamis and Coastal Eff ects
		Case Study 4.1 Megathrusts Make Mega-Disasters
			Fire
		Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting
			Seismic Gaps
			Earthquake Precursors and Prediction
			Current Status of Earthquake Prediction
			The Earthquake Cycle and Forecasting
			Earthquake Early Warnings?
			Public Response to Earthquake Hazards
		Earthquake Control?
		Case Study 4.2 Understanding Faults Better—Parkfi eld and SAFOD
		Future Earthquakes in North America?
			Areas of Widely Recognized Risk
			Other Potential Problem Areas
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 5 Volcanoes
		Magma Sources and Types
		Styles and Locations of Volcanic Activity
			Continental Fissure Eruptions
			Individual Volcanoes—Locations
			Shield Volcanoes
			Cinder Cones and Pyroclastics
			Composite Volcanoes
		Hazards Related to Volcanoes
			Lava
			Pyroclastics
			Lahars
		Case Study 5.1 Living with Lava on Hawaii
			Pyroclastic Flows—Nuées Ardentes
			Toxic Gases
			Steam Explosions
			Landslides and Collapse
			Secondary Effects: Climate and Atmospheric Chemistry
		Issues in Predicting Volcanic Eruptions
			Classification of Volcanoes by Activity
			The Volcanic Explosivity Index
			Volcanic Eruption Precursors
			Evacuation as Response to Eruption Predictions
		More on Volcanic Hazards in the United States
			Cascade Range
			The Aleutians
			Long Valley and Yellowstone Calderas
		Case Study 5.2 Redoubt Volcano, Alaska
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
SECTION III SURFACE PROCESSES
	CHAPTER 6 Streams and Flooding
		The Hydrologic Cycle
		Streams and Their Features
			Streams—General
			Sediment Transport
			Velocity, Gradient, and Base Level
			Velocity and Sediment Sorting and Deposition
			Channel and Floodplain Evolution
		Flooding
			Factors Governing Flood Severity
			Flood Characteristics
			Stream Hydrographs
			Flood-Frequency Curves
		Case Study 6.1 How Big Is the One-Hundred-Year Flood?
		Consequences of Development in Floodplains
		Strategies for Reducing Flood Hazards
			Restrictive Zoning and “Floodproofing”
			Retention Ponds, Diversion Channels
			Channelization
			Levees
			Flood-Control Dams and Reservoirs
		Case Study 6.2 Life on the Mississippi: The Ups and Downs of Levees
			Flood Warnings?
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 7 Coastal Zones and Processes
		Nature of the Coastline
			Waves and Tides
			Sediment Transport and Deposition
			Storms and Coastal Dynamics
		Emergent and Submergent Coastlines
			Causes of Long-Term Sea-Level Change
			Signs of Changing Relative Sea Level
			Present and Future Sea-Level Trends
		Coastal Erosion and “Stabilization”
			Beach Erosion, Protection, and Restoration
			Cliff Erosion
		Especially Diffi cult Coastal Environments
			Barrier Islands
			Estuaries
		Case Study 7 Hurricanes and Coastal Vulnerability
		Costs of Construction—and Reconstruction—in High-Energy Environments
			Recognition of Coastal Hazards
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 8 Mass Movements
		Factors Influencing Slope Stability
			Effects of Slope and Materials
			Effects of Fluid
			Effects of Vegetation
			Earthquakes
			Quick Clays
		Types of Mass Wasting
			Falls
			Slumps and Slides
			Flows and Avalanches
		Consequences of Mass Movements
			Impact of Human Activities
			A Compounding of Problems: The Venezuelan Coast
		Possible Preventive Measures
			Slope Stabilization
			Recognizing the Hazards
			Landslide Warnings?
		Case Study 8 The Vaiont Dam—Reservoirs and Landslides
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 9 Ice and Glaciers, Wind and Deserts
		Glaciers and Glacial Features
			Glacier Formation
			Types of Glaciers
			Movement and Change of Glaciers
			Glacial Erosion and Deposition
			Ice Ages and Their Possible Causes
		Case Study 9 Vanishing Glaciers, Vanishing Water Supply
		Wind and Its Geologic Impacts
			Wind Erosion
			Wind Deposition
			Dune Migration
			Loess
		Deserts and Desertification
			Causes of Natural Deserts
			Desertification
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 10 Climate—Past, Present, and Future
		Major Controls on Global Climate; The Greenhouse Effect
		Climate and Ice Revisited
			The Hidden Ice: Permafrost
		Oceans and Climate
			The Thermohaline Circulation
			El Niño
		Other Aspects of Global Change
		Evidence of Climates Past
		Case Study 10 Taking Earth’s Temperature
		Whither for the Future? Climate Feedbacks, Predictive Uncertainty
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
SECTION IV RESOURCES
	CHAPTER 11 Ground Water and Water Resources
		Fluid Storage and Mobility: Porosity and Permeability
		Subsurface Waters
		Aquifer Geometry and Groundwater Flow
			Confined and Unconfined Aquifers
			Darcy’s Law and Groundwater Flow
			Other Factors in Water Availability
		Consequences of Groundwater Withdrawal
			Lowering the Water Table
			Compaction and Surface Subsidence
			Saltwater Intrusion
		Impacts of Urbanization on Groundwater Recharge
		Karst and Sinkholes
		Water Quality
			Measures of Water Quality
		Case Study 11 What’s in the Water?
			Hard Water
		Water Use, Water Supply
			General U.S. Water Use
			Regional Variations in Water Use
		Case Studies in Water Consumption
			The Colorado River Basin
			The High Plains (Ogallala) Aquifer System
			The Aral Sea
			Lake Chad
		Extending the Water Supply
			Conservation
			Interbasin Water Transfer
			Desalination
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 12 Weathering, Erosion, and Soil Resources
		Soil Formation
			Soil-Forming Processes: Weathering
			Soil Profi les, Soil Horizons
		Chemical and Physical Properties of Soils
			Color, Texture, and Structure of Soils
			Soil Classification
		Soils and Human Activities
			Lateritic Soil
			Wetland Soils
			Soil Erosion
			Soil Erosion versus Soil Formation
			Strategies for Reducing Erosion
		Case Study 12.1 Plantations in Paradise: Unintended Consequences
			Irrigation and Soil Chemistry
			The Soil Resource—The Global View
		Case Study 12.2 Soils and Suspects
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 13 N 1 km Mineral and Rock Resources
		Resources, Reserves, and Ore Deposits
		Types of Mineral Deposits
			Igneous Rocks and Magmatic Deposits
			Hydrothermal Ores
			Sedimentary Deposits
			Other Low-Temperature Ore-Forming Processes
			Metamorphic Deposits
		Mineral and Rock Resources—Examples
			Metals
			Nonmetallic Minerals
			Rock Resources
		Mineral Supply and Demand
			U.S. Mineral Production and Consumption
			World Mineral Supply and Demand
		Minerals for the Future: Some Options Considered
		Case Study 13.1 The Not-So-Rare Rare Earths
			New Methods in Mineral Exploration
			Marine Mineral Resources
			Conservation of Mineral Resources
		Case Study 13.2 Mining Your Cell Phone?
		Impacts of Mining-Related Activities
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 14 Energy Resources—Fossil Fuels
		Formation of Oil and Natural Gas Deposits
		Supply and Demand for Oil and Natural Gas
			Oil
		Case Study 14.1 The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: To Drill or Not to Drill?
			Natural Gas
			Future Prospects for Oil and Gas
			Enhanced Oil Recovery
			Unconventional Natural Gas Sources
			Conservation
		Oil Spills
		Case Study 14.2 Energy Prices, Energy Choices
		Coal
			Formation of Coal Deposits
			Coal Reserves and Resources
			Limitations on Coal Use
		Environmental Impacts of Coal Use
			Gases
			Ash
			Coal-Mining Hazards and Environmental Impacts
		Oil Shale
		Oil Sand
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 15 Energy Resources—Alternative Sources
		Nuclear Power—Fission
			Fission—Basic Principles
			The Geology of Uranium Deposits
			Extending the Nuclear Fuel Supply
			Concerns Related to Nuclear Reactor Safety
			Concerns Related to Fuel and Waste Handling
			Risk Assessment, Risk Projection
		Case Study 15.1 A Tale of Two Disasters: Chernobyl and Fukushima
		Nuclear Power—Fusion
		Solar Energy
			Solar Heating
			Solar Electricity
		Geothermal Energy
			Traditional Geothermal Energy Uses
			Alternative Geothermal Sources
		Hydropower
			Limitations on Hydropower Development
		Energy from the Oceans
		Wind Energy
		Case Study 15.2 Electricity’s Hidden Energy Costs
		Biofuels
			Waste-Derived Fuels
			Alcohol Fuels
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
SECTION V WASTE DISPOSAL, POLLUTION, AND HEALTH
	CHAPTER 16 Waste Disposal
		Solid Wastes—General
		Municipal Waste Disposal
			Sanitary Landfills
			Incineration
			Ocean Dumping
		Reducing Solid-Waste Volume
			Handling (Nontoxic) Organic Matter
			Recycling
			Other Options
		Toxic-Waste Disposal
		Case Study 16.1 Decisions, Decisions . . .
			Secure Landfills
			Deep-Well Disposal
			Other Strategies
		Sewage Treatment
			Septic Systems
			Municipal Sewage Treatment
		Radioactive Wastes
			Radioactive Decay
			Effects of Radiation
		Case Study 16.2 The Ghost of Toxins Past: Superfund
			Nature of Radioactive Wastes
			Historical Suggestions: Space, Ice, and Plate Tectonics
			Seabed Disposal
			Bedrock Caverns for Liquid Waste
			Bedrock Disposal of Solid High-Level Wastes
			Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP): A Model?
			The Long Road to Yucca Mountain: A Dead End?
			No High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Yet
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 17 Water Pollution
		General Principles
			Geochemical Cycles
			Residence Time
			Residence Time and Pollution
			Trace Elements, Pollution, and Health
			Point and Nonpoint Pollution Sources
		Organic Matter
			Biochemical Oxygen Demand
			Eutrophication
		Industrial Pollution
			Inorganic Pollutants—Metals
			Other Inorganic Pollutants
		Case Study 17.1 Lessons from Minamata
			Organic Compounds
			Problems of Control
		Case Study 17.2 The Long Shadow of DDT
			Thermal Pollution
		Agricultural Pollution
			Fertilizers and Organic Waste
			Sediment Pollution
			Pesticides
		Reversing the Damage—Surface Water
		Groundwater Pollution
			The Surface–Ground Water Connection Explored
			Tracing Pollution’s Path
		Reversing the Damage—Ground Water
			Decontamination After Extraction
			In Situ Decontamination
			Damage Control by Containment—The Rocky Mountain Arsenal
		New Technology Meets Problems from the Past: California Gulch Superfund Site, Leadville, Colorado
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 18 Air Pollution
		Atmospheric Chemistry—Cycles and Residence Times
		Types and Sources of Air Pollution
			Particulates
			Carbon Gases
			Sulfur Gases
			Nitrogen Gases and “Smog Ozone”
			The Ozone Layer and Chlorofl uorocarbons (CFCs)
			Lead
			Other Pollutants
		Case Study 18 Indoor Air Pollution?
		Acid Rain
			Regional Variations in Rainfall Acidity and Impacts
		Air Pollution and Weather
			Thermal Inversion
			Impact on Weather
		Toward Air-Pollution Control
			Air-Quality Standards
			Control Methods
			Automobile Emissions
			Carbon Sequestration
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
SECTION VI OTHER RELATED TOPICS
	CHAPTER 19 Environmental Law and Policy
		Resource Law: Water
			Surface-Water Law
			Groundwater Law
		Resource Law: Minerals and Fuels
			Mineral Rights
			Mine Reclamation
		International Resource Disputes
			Law of the Sea and Exclusive Economic Zones
			Antarctica
		Pollution and Its Control
			Water Pollution
			Air Pollution
			Waste Disposal
			The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
			Defi ning Limits of Pollution
			International Initiatives
		Cost-Benefit Analysis
			Problems of Quantification
			Cost-Benefi t Analysis and the Federal Government
		Laws Relating to Geologic Hazards
			Construction Controls
			Other Responses to Earthquake Hazards
			Flood Hazards, Flood Insurance
			Problems with Geologic-Hazard Mitigation Laws
		The National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
		Case Study 19 A Tale of Two Pipelines
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
	CHAPTER 20 Land-Use Planning and Engineering Geology
		Land-Use Planning—Why?
		Land-Use Options
		The Federal Government and Land-Use Planning
		Maps as a Planning Tool
		Case Study 20.1 How Green Is My—Golf Course?
		Engineering Geology—Some Considerations
			Testing and Scale Modeling
		Case Histories, Old and New
			The Leaning Tower of Pisa
			The Panama Canal
			Boston’s “Big Dig”
		Dams, Failures, and Consequences
			The St. Francis Dam
			Other Examples and Construction Issues
		Case Study 20.2 Three Gorges Dam (It’s Not Only About Safety)
		SUMMARY
		KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
		EXERCISES
Appendix A Geologic Time, Geologic Process Rates
	Introduction
	Relative Dating
		Arranging Events in Order
		Correlation
		Uniformitarianism
	How Old Is the Earth?
		Early Efforts
		Nineteenth-Century Views
	Radiometric Dating
		Radioactive Decay and Dating
		Choice of an Isotopic System
		Radiometric and Relative Ages Combined
	The Geologic Time Scale
	Geologic Process Rates
	SUMMARY
	KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Appendix B Mineral and Rock Identification
	Mineral Identification
		A Note on Mineral Formulas
	Rock Identification
GLOSSARY
INDEX
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