Environmental Engineers' Handbook on CD-ROM

Front Cover\r......Page 1
Copyright\r......Page 2
Acknowledgments......Page 3
Contents......Page 4
Contributors......Page 10
The Condition of the Environment......Page 14
The Condition of the Waters......Page 15
The Condition of the Air......Page 16
The Condition of the Land......Page 18
Population......Page 19
Foreword......Page 21
1 Environmental Laws and Regulations......Page 22
Introduction......Page 24
Limitations on Agencies......Page 25
Judicial Review of Agency Actions......Page 26
Reference......Page 27
National Environmental Policy Act......Page 28
Freedom of Information Act......Page 30
Occupational Safety and Health Act......Page 31
Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act......Page 33
References......Page 34
Endangered Species Act......Page 35
Coastal Zone Management Act......Page 36
References......Page 37
Clean Air Act......Page 38
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act......Page 42
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act......Page 46
Noise Control Act......Page 50
Safe Drinking Water Act......Page 51
Federal Water Pollution Control Act......Page 52
Toxic Substances Control Act......Page 56
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act......Page 57
Pollution Prevention Act......Page 60
Bibliography......Page 61
2 Environmental Impact Assessment......Page 62
Key Definitions......Page 63
Impact Significance Determination......Page 65
Trends in Process Application......Page 67
2.2 EIA METHODS: THE BROAD PERSPECTIVE......Page 68
Reference......Page 69
2.3 INTERACTION MATRIX AND SIMPLE CHECKLIST METHODS......Page 70
Summary Observations on Simple Matrices......Page 72
References......Page 76
Classification of Prediction Techniques......Page 77
Current Use of Techniques......Page 78
References......Page 82
Conceptual Basis for Tradeoff Analysis......Page 83
Importance Weighting for Decision Factors......Page 84
Scaling, Rating, or Ranking of Alternatives......Page 85
Examples of Decision-Focused Checklists......Page 86
Summary Observations on Decision Focused Checklists......Page 90
References......Page 91
References......Page 92
2.7 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING......Page 94
References......Page 95
2.8 EMERGING ISSUES IN THE EIA PROCESS......Page 96
2.9 INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT......Page 97
3 Pollution Prevention in Chemical Manufacturing......Page 99
3.1 REGULATIONS AND DEFINITIONS......Page 102
State Programs......Page 105
3.2 POLLUTION PREVENTION METHODOLOGY......Page 106
Determinants of Success......Page 107
Assessment Phase......Page 108
Implementation Phase......Page 111
Defining the Problem......Page 113
Source Reduction......Page 115
Recycling......Page 118
3.4 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)......Page 121
Inventory Analysis......Page 122
Impact Analysis......Page 128
References......Page 130
Product Design and Material Selection......Page 131
Process Management......Page 135
Efficient Distribution......Page 136
References......Page 137
Environmental Load Indicator......Page 138
Process Chemistry......Page 139
Physical Factors......Page 144
Process Development......Page 145
Waste Production in Reactors......Page 147
Impurities and Catalyst Loss......Page 151
Minimizing Waste......Page 152
Separation Technology......Page 158
Ten-Step Procedure......Page 162
Raw Materials......Page 169
Reactors......Page 170
Distillation Columns......Page 172
Heat Exchangers......Page 174
Piping......Page 175
Process Equipment Cleaning......Page 176
Other Improvements......Page 178
Pinch Technology......Page 179
Applications in Pollution Prevention......Page 181
Waste Minimization......Page 184
Sampling......Page 185
Analyzers......Page 187
System Design and Support......Page 190
Benefits in Waste Reduction......Page 191
Distributed Control Systems......Page 192
Step-by-Step Batch DCS......Page 194
Continuous Process Automation......Page 199
EPA Pollution Prevention Strategy......Page 200
Industrial Programs and Activities......Page 202
Nongovernmental Incentives......Page 203
Bibliography......Page 204
4 Standards......Page 205
Ambient Concentration Limits......Page 207
Compliance with ACLs......Page 210
Elements of an Emission Standard......Page 211
Hazardous Air Pollution Standards......Page 212
Other Technology Standards......Page 216
State and Local Air Toxics Programs......Page 218
Air Toxics Control in Some European Countries......Page 219
Land Use and Average Noise Level Compatibility......Page 221
Community Exposure to Airport Noise......Page 223
References......Page 224
ACLs......Page 225
Technology Standards......Page 226
Effluent Standards......Page 227
References......Page 232
Drinking Water Regulation......Page 233
EPA Drinking Water and Raw Water Standards......Page 234
Canadian Drinking Water Guidelines......Page 238
European Economic Community Drinking Water Directives......Page 242
References......Page 243
Wellhead Protection......Page 244
4.8 ISO 14000 Environmental Standards......Page 245
Bibliography......Page 246
5 Air Pollution......Page 247
Sources of Air Pollution......Page 252
Effects of Air Pollution......Page 257
Tropospheric Ozone—A Special Problem......Page 265
Brief Synopsis of Fate of Air Pollutants......Page 267
References......Page 268
Classification of VOCs and HAPs......Page 269
Hazardous Organic NESHAP......Page 273
Toxic Pollutants......Page 277
References......Page 278
Basic Chemical Processes......Page 279
Particulates......Page 282
Long-Range Planning......Page 283
References......Page 284
Acid Rain Effects......Page 285
Losses in Stratospheric Ozone Layer......Page 286
Global Warming......Page 287
References......Page 289
Wind......Page 290
Lapse Rates and Stability......Page 293
Precipitation......Page 294
Topography......Page 295
Air Pollution Surveys......Page 296
Allowable Emission Rates......Page 297
The Gaussian Model......Page 298
Plume Rise and Stack Height Considerations......Page 302
Computer Programs for Dispersion Modeling......Page 308
Mobile and Line Source Modeling......Page 314
References......Page 315
Analyzing Air Emissions......Page 316
Monitoring Area Emissions......Page 322
Sampling of Ambient Air......Page 324
Gas and Vapor Sampling......Page 325
Particulate Matter Sampling......Page 327
Air Quality Monitoring Systems......Page 329
Instrumental Analyses......Page 333
Portable and Automatic Analyzers......Page 335
5.11 STACK SAMPLING......Page 336
Pitot Tube Assembly......Page 337
Operating or Control Unit......Page 341
Requirements......Page 342
System Options......Page 343
Continuous Emission Monitors......Page 346
5.13 REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES......Page 349
Open-Path Optical Remote Sensing Systems......Page 350
References......Page 351
Marketing Pollution Rights......Page 352
Other Factors......Page 353
Gravity Settling Chambers......Page 356
Cyclones......Page 357
Filters......Page 364
References......Page 371
Corona Generation......Page 373
Current–Voltage Relationships......Page 375
Particle Charging......Page 376
ESP Efficiency......Page 377
General Description......Page 381
Scrubber Types......Page 382
Factors Influencing Collection Efficiency......Page 386
Energy Source Substitution......Page 390
Process Modifications......Page 391
Design Feature Modifications......Page 393
References......Page 396
Absorption......Page 397
Condensation......Page 404
Adsorption......Page 405
Chemical Conversion......Page 412
References......Page 423
Overview of Thermal Destruction......Page 424
Source Examples......Page 426
Combustion Chemistry......Page 427
Design Considerations......Page 430
References......Page 434
Mechanisms......Page 435
Fixed-Film Biotreatment Systems......Page 436
Applicability and Limitations......Page 437
References......Page 438
Emission Control Options......Page 439
Source Controls......Page 442
Sources......Page 446
Prevention and Controls......Page 447
Odor Terminology......Page 450
Human Response to Odors and Odor Perception......Page 452
References......Page 453
Adsorption with Chemical Reaction......Page 454
Combustion......Page 455
Radon......Page 456
Other Indoor Pollutants......Page 462
Occupational Exposure Monitoring......Page 464
Bibliography......Page 467
6 Noise Pollution......Page 469
Sound Production and Propagation......Page 471
The Hearing Mechanism......Page 474
References......Page 479
Characteristics of Industrial Noise......Page 480
Transportation Noise......Page 484
Specific Noise Sources......Page 485
Reactions to Noise......Page 486
Damage-Risk Criteria......Page 487
Psychological Effects of Noise Pollution......Page 488
Basic Definitions and Terminology......Page 491
Frequency Sensitivity and Equal Loudness Characteristics......Page 492
Vibration and Vibration Measurement......Page 495
Measuring Noise......Page 497
References......Page 501
Workplace Noise......Page 502
Community Noise......Page 503
Plant Noise Survey......Page 506
Source-Path-Receiver Concept......Page 507
Control of Noise Source by Design......Page 508
Control of Noise Source by Redress......Page 514
Acoustical Separation......Page 516
Physical Barriers......Page 517
Isolators and Silencers......Page 521
References......Page 523
Equipment and Shelters......Page 524
Bibliography......Page 526
7 Wastewater Treatment......Page 527
Flow Rates......Page 537
Wastewater Characteristics......Page 540
Permits and Effluent Limitations......Page 546
References......Page 547
Effects of Contaminants......Page 548
Origins of Industrial Wastewater......Page 559
Wastewater Characterization Surveys......Page 562
7.4 WASTEWATER MINIMIZATION......Page 569
Industrial Wastewater Flow Reduction......Page 570
References......Page 571
Evaluating Compliance......Page 572
Selecting Treatment Technologies......Page 573
Magnetic Flowmeters......Page 575
Coriolis Mass Flowmeters......Page 580
Orifices......Page 582
Pitot Tubes......Page 584
Variable-Area Flowmeters......Page 585
Venturi and Flow Tubes......Page 587
Vortex Flowmeters......Page 588
Weirs and Flumes......Page 589
Bubblers......Page 591
Capacitance Probes......Page 594
D/P Cells......Page 595
Optical Sensors......Page 596
Thermal Switches......Page 597
Vibrating Switches......Page 598
Probes and Probe Cleaners......Page 599
pH Measurement......Page 600
ORP Probes......Page 607
Ion-Selective Electrodes......Page 609
Liquid Ion Exchange Electrodes......Page 611
References......Page 612
Bypass Filters and Homogenizers......Page 613
DO Analyzers......Page 615
BOD, COD, and TOD Sensors......Page 618
Total Carbon Analyzers......Page 623
Activated Sludge Monitors......Page 626
Slurry Consistency Monitors......Page 627
Sludge and Turbidity Monitors......Page 628
Installing the Sludge Monitor......Page 631
Colloidal Suspension Monitors......Page 632
Oil Monitors......Page 633
Basic Sewer Systems......Page 636
Designing Sewer Systems......Page 638
7.11 MANHOLES, CATCH BASINS, AND DRAIN HUBS......Page 641
Industrial Sewer Appurtenances......Page 642
7.12 PUMPS AND PUMPING STATIONS......Page 646
Pump Types and Applications......Page 647
Pumping System Design......Page 648
Pumping Station Design......Page 650
Purpose of Flow Equalization......Page 652
Design of Facilities......Page 653
Operational Considerations......Page 658
7.14 SCREENS AND COMMINUTORS......Page 659
Screen Types......Page 660
Comminutors......Page 667
Reference......Page 669
Grit Removal Devices......Page 670
7.16 GREASE REMOVAL AND SKIMMING......Page 673
Skimming Devices......Page 676
Types of Clarifiers......Page 678
Design Factors......Page 681
References......Page 684
Pressurization Systems......Page 685
Process Design Variables......Page 686
Chemical Additions......Page 687
Process Variables......Page 688
Types of Sludge......Page 689
Transport of Sludge in Closed Conduits......Page 690
Sludge Pumps......Page 691
References......Page 692
Septic Tank Design......Page 693
Selection of Specific Processes......Page 695
7.22 WASTEWATER MICROBIOLOGY......Page 703
Nutritional Requirements......Page 704
Environmental Factors Affecting Microbial Growth......Page 705
Microbial Populations......Page 707
Process Description......Page 709
Process Microbiology......Page 710
Process Design......Page 711
References......Page 714
Process Design......Page 715
References......Page 717
Process Microbiology......Page 718
Process Flow Diagrams......Page 719
Design Concepts......Page 721
Process Kinetic Models......Page 724
Process Design......Page 726
Operational Problems......Page 727
Process Flow Diagrams......Page 728
Process Microbiology......Page 729
Stabilization Ponds......Page 730
Anaerobic Lagoons......Page 732
Process Description......Page 734
Environmental Factors......Page 735
Treatment Processes......Page 736
References......Page 740
Design......Page 741
7.30 DISINFECTION......Page 743
Chlorine Chemistry......Page 744
Chlorination System Design......Page 748
Ozonation......Page 751
7.31 TREATMENT PLANT ADVANCES......Page 752
Secondary Equivalent (80 to 90% BOD Reduction)......Page 753
Secondary Equivalent plus Phosphate Removal......Page 754
Tertiary Equivalent (95% BOD Reduction plus Phosphate Removal)......Page 757
Process Description......Page 761
Types of Chemicals Used......Page 762
Unit Operations......Page 763
Design Considerations......Page 765
Special Filters......Page 766
Ultrafiltration Membranes in Activated-Sludge Processes......Page 770
High-Rate Granular Filtration......Page 772
Colloidal Behavior and Inorganic Coagulants......Page 776
Flocculation with Organic Polyelectrolytes......Page 781
Coagulation Systems......Page 788
Emulsion Breaking......Page 790
Using Oxygen Instead of Air......Page 793
Use of Oxygen in Bioremediation......Page 796
Use of Oxygen in Handling Industrial Wastewater......Page 797
Aerobic Fluidized-Bed Treatment of Municipal Wastewater......Page 798
Aerobic Fluidized-Bed Treatment of Industrial Wastewater......Page 800
References......Page 801
Ion-Exchange Reaction......Page 802
Ion-Exchange Characteristics......Page 803
Role of Resin Types......Page 804
Application of Ion Exchange......Page 806
Waste Metal Processing......Page 807
Demineralization by Distillation......Page 809
Demineralization by Electrodialysis......Page 811
Demineralization by Freezing......Page 814
Demineralization by Reverse Osmosis......Page 816
Nutrient Removal Mechanisms......Page 818
Phosphorus Removal Processes......Page 823
Nitrifying/Nitrogen Removal Systems......Page 825
Simultaneous Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal Processes......Page 826
References......Page 830
Process Description......Page 831
Common Neutralization Reagents......Page 832
7.40 pH CONTROL SYSTEMS......Page 837
Nature of the pH Process......Page 838
Nonlinear Controllers......Page 839
Process Equipment and Reagent Delivery......Page 841
Controller Tuning......Page 848
Control Applications......Page 850
Process Description......Page 858
Application of the Nernst Equation......Page 859
Oxidation Processes—Cyanide Destruction......Page 860
Reduction Processes—Hexavalent Chrome Removal......Page 862
7.42 ORP CONTROL (CHROME AND CYANIDE TREATMENT)......Page 864
Cyanide Waste Treatment......Page 865
Chemical Reduction......Page 869
Chrome Waste Treatment......Page 870
Precipitation......Page 872
Oil Sources......Page 873
Treatment......Page 874
Theory and Mechanisms......Page 876
Summary......Page 880
7.45 STABILIZATION: ANAEROBIC DIGESTION......Page 881
Physical Design......Page 882
Digester Sizing......Page 883
Gravity Thickening......Page 886
Flotation Thickening......Page 887
Pressurized Recycling Design Example......Page 888
Domestic Wastewater......Page 889
Industrial Wastewater......Page 891
Filtration Tests and Sizing Calculations......Page 893
Batch versus Continuous Filters......Page 896
7.48 DEWATERING: CENTRIFUGATION......Page 898
Imperforate Bowl (Basket) Knife Centrifuge......Page 899
Solid Bowl Conveyor Centrifuge......Page 901
Disc Centrifuge with Nozzle Discharge......Page 903
Selected Applications and Trends......Page 906
Porteous Heat Treatment......Page 908
Thermal Dryers......Page 911
Multiple-Hearth Radiant Incineration......Page 913
Fluidized-Bed Incineration......Page 916
Wet Oxidation......Page 919
Flash Drying or Incineration......Page 922
Design and Operation......Page 923
Freeze and Thaw......Page 924
Operation......Page 925
Physical and Biological Nature......Page 926
Temperature and Shock Load Effects......Page 927
Wastewater Pretreatment......Page 928
System Description......Page 929
Infiltration Techniques......Page 931
Conclusions......Page 932
Effects......Page 933
Sludge Pipelines and Marine Fills......Page 934
Disposal Methods......Page 935
Mechanical Sludge Removal......Page 936
7.55 COMPOSTING......Page 939
Process Fundamentals......Page 940
Design......Page 941
Special Considerations......Page 942
Summary and Conclusions......Page 943
Bibliography......Page 944
8 Removing Specific Water Contaminants......Page 946
Carbon Particles......Page 948
Foundry Sand......Page 949
Laundry Wastes......Page 950
Mill Scale......Page 952
Mineral Tailings......Page 953
Aldehydes......Page 954
Cellulose Pulp......Page 955
Food Processing Wastes......Page 956
Hydrocarbons......Page 960
Pesticides......Page 962
Phenol......Page 966
Starch......Page 968
Viruses and Bacteria......Page 970
References......Page 973
Bicarbonate......Page 974
Calcium......Page 976
Cyanides......Page 977
Fluoride......Page 978
Hardness......Page 979
Iron......Page 980
Lead......Page 981
Manganese......Page 982
Mercury......Page 983
Strontium......Page 986
Sulfate......Page 987
Zinc......Page 988
References......Page 989
Spent Caustics from Refineries......Page 990
Steel Mill Pickle Liquor......Page 992
Effects on Plant and Animal Life......Page 996
Sources and Prevention......Page 997
Methods of Control......Page 1001
Conversion Processes......Page 1006
Desalination Plants......Page 1007
Desalting Processes......Page 1008
Freezing Processes......Page 1012
Electrodialysis......Page 1013
The Future of Desalination......Page 1014
Low-Activity Wastes......Page 1015
High-Activity Wastes......Page 1018
References......Page 1020
9 Groundwater and Surface Water Pollution......Page 1021
Aquifers......Page 1025
Physical Properties of Soils and Liquids......Page 1026
Physical Properties of Vadose Zones and Aquifers......Page 1028
9.2 FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF GROUNDWATER FLOW......Page 1030
Generalization of Darcy’s Law......Page 1031
One-Dimensional Horizontal Flow......Page 1032
Radial Flow......Page 1033
Radial Flow in a Semiconfined Aquifer......Page 1034
Reference......Page 1035
9.4 UNCONFINED AQUIFERS......Page 1036
Unconfined Flow with Infiltration......Page 1037
Radial Flow with Infiltration......Page 1038
9.5 COMBINED CONFINED AND UNCONFINED FLOW......Page 1039
Radial Flow......Page 1040
9.6 TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS......Page 1041
Method of Images......Page 1043
Potential and Flow Functions......Page 1045
Transient Unconfined Flow (Phreatic Storage)......Page 1046
Transient Radial Flow (Theis Solution)......Page 1047
9.8 DETERMINING AQUIFER CHARACTERISTICS......Page 1052
Confined Aquifers......Page 1053
Semiconfined (Leaky) Aquifers......Page 1056
Unconfined Aquifers......Page 1057
Slug Tests......Page 1060
References......Page 1062
Partially Penetrating Wells (Imperfect Wells)......Page 1063
References......Page 1065
Confined Interface Flow......Page 1066
Reference......Page 1067
Waste Disposal......Page 1068
Agricultural Operations......Page 1070
References......Page 1071
Organic Contaminants......Page 1072
Inorganic Contaminants......Page 1077
References......Page 1081
Transport Process......Page 1082
Contaminant Plume Behavior......Page 1084
References......Page 1086
Interpretation of Existing Information......Page 1087
Initial Field Screening......Page 1088
9.15 SUBSURFACE SITE INVESTIGATION......Page 1095
Subsurface Drilling......Page 1096
Monitoring Well Installation......Page 1097
Groundwater Sampling......Page 1100
Excavation and Removal......Page 1104
Biological Treatment......Page 1105
Stabilization and Solidification Treatment......Page 1106
Withdrawal and Containment Systems......Page 1107
Treatment Systems......Page 1113
Limitations of Pump-and-Treat Technologies......Page 1124
References......Page 1125
Bioremediation......Page 1126
Other Innovative Technologies......Page 1128
References......Page 1130
Integrated Management Approach......Page 1131
Major Types of Pollutants......Page 1133
Nonpoint Sources......Page 1134
Direct Input from Pollutant Source......Page 1135
References......Page 1137
Planning......Page 1138
Maintenance and Operational Practices......Page 1142
9.22 FIELD MONITORING PROGRAMS......Page 1143
Acquisition of Representative Samples......Page 1144
Sampling Equipment......Page 1148
QA/QC Measures......Page 1152
Statistical Analysis......Page 1153
Physical Processes......Page 1154
Bibliography......Page 1157
10 Solid Waste......Page 1158
Waste Types Not Included......Page 1161
10.2 SOURCES, QUANTITIES, AND EFFECTS......Page 1162
Effects......Page 1163
References......Page 1165
Component Composition of MSW......Page 1166
Density......Page 1167
Particle Size, Abrasiveness, and Other Physical Characteristics......Page 1168
Combustion Characteristics......Page 1169
Toxic Substances in Solid Waste......Page 1171
References......Page 1174
Basic Characterization Methods......Page 1175
Estimation of Waste Quantity......Page 1176
Sampling MSW to Estimate Composition......Page 1177
Number of Samples Required to Estimate Composition......Page 1181
Sorting and Weighing Samples of MSW......Page 1183
Processing the Results of Sorting......Page 1186
Visual Characterization of Bulky Waste......Page 1187
Sampling MSW for Laboratory Analysis......Page 1188
Estimating Combustion Characteristics Based on Limited Laboratory Testing......Page 1190
Implications for Waste Reduction......Page 1191
Implications for Recovery of Useful Materials......Page 1192
Implications for Incineration and Energy Recovery......Page 1193
Implications for Landfilling......Page 1194
Municipal Waste Reduction......Page 1195
Separation at the Source......Page 1197
Recycling......Page 1198
Role of MRFs and MRF/TFs......Page 1201
MRFs for Source-Separated Waste......Page 1202
MSW Processing......Page 1205
Reference......Page 1207
RDF Preparation Plant......Page 1208
Modeling RDF Performance......Page 1209
Reference......Page 1210
Mass-Burn and RDF Incinerators......Page 1211
Plant Design......Page 1212
Process Design......Page 1214
Instrumentation......Page 1229
Sludge Incineration Economics......Page 1230
Incineration Processes......Page 1231
References......Page 1236
Location......Page 1237
Charging......Page 1239
Accessories......Page 1240
Domestic and Multiple-Dwelling Incinerators......Page 1241
Miscellaneous Onsite Incinerators......Page 1242
Pyrolysis Principles......Page 1243
Experimental Data......Page 1245
Reference......Page 1247
Landfill Regulations......Page 1248
Siting New Landfills......Page 1250
Design......Page 1252
Landfill Types......Page 1253
Leachate Control......Page 1255
Gas Control......Page 1257
Site Preparation and Landfill Operation......Page 1258
Special Landfills......Page 1259
10.14 COMPOSTING OF MSW......Page 1260
Aerobic Composting in MSW Management......Page 1261
Municipal Composting Strategies......Page 1262
Bibliography......Page 1263
11 Hazardous Waste......Page 1266
Definition of Hazardous Waste......Page 1270
11.2 HAZARDOUS WASTE SOURCES......Page 1274
Hazardous Waste from Specific Sources (40 CFR §261.32)......Page 1275
Human Health Hazards......Page 1278
Site Safety......Page 1279
References......Page 1281
References......Page 1283
Sampling Equipment and Procedures......Page 1284
Quality Assurance and Quality Control......Page 1285
Analysis......Page 1287
Reference......Page 1288
11.7 THE HAZARD RANKING SYSTEM AND THE NATIONAL PRIORITY LIST......Page 1290
References......Page 1291
11.8 RISK ASSESSMENT......Page 1292
Review of Basic Chemical Properties......Page 1293
RA Paradigms......Page 1294
Risk Management......Page 1299
References......Page 1300
Source Reduction and Control......Page 1301
Recycling and Reuse......Page 1303
References......Page 1304
Generator Requirements......Page 1305
Transporters and Carriers......Page 1309
References......Page 1311
General Facility Standards......Page 1312
General Technical Standards for Interim Status Facilities......Page 1313
11.12 STORAGE......Page 1315
Waste Piles......Page 1316
Landfills......Page 1317
Underground Injection......Page 1318
Available Processes......Page 1319
Process Selection......Page 1320
Incineration......Page 1321
Wet Air Oxidation......Page 1330
Supercritical Water Oxidation......Page 1334
References......Page 1335
11.15 WASTE CONCENTRATION TECHNOLOGY......Page 1336
Gravity Separation......Page 1337
Phase Change......Page 1340
Dissolution......Page 1341
Size/Adsorptivity/Ionic Characteristics......Page 1343
Chemical Treatment Processes......Page 1345
References......Page 1351
Technology Description......Page 1352
Technology Limitations......Page 1354
References......Page 1356
11.17 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT......Page 1358
Activated Sludge......Page 1359
Rotating Biological Contactors......Page 1360
Anaerobic Digestion......Page 1361
11.18 BIOTREATMENT BY SEQUENCING BATCH REACTORS......Page 1364
Modes of Operation......Page 1365
Laboratory Treatability Studies......Page 1367
Problems and Causes......Page 1369
UST Regulations......Page 1370
Tank Monitoring......Page 1372
Corrective Technologies......Page 1375
11.21 PRINCIPLES OF RADIOACTIVITY......Page 1385
Types of Radioactivity......Page 1386
Half-Life and Decay of Radioisotopes......Page 1387
Mining Activities......Page 1389
Natural Deposits......Page 1390
11.23 SAFETY STANDARDS......Page 1393
Basic Radiation Safety......Page 1394
References......Page 1395
Radiation Monitoring......Page 1396
Radioactivity Analysis......Page 1397
11.25 MINING AND RECOVERY OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS......Page 1400
Waste Classification......Page 1402
Sources of Low-Level Radioactive Waste......Page 1405
Quantities of LLRW Generated......Page 1406
LLRW Commercial Disposal Sites......Page 1407
LLRW Reduction Processes......Page 1408
Conditioning Techniques......Page 1410
Disposal Techniques......Page 1412
11.27 HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE......Page 1413
Materials Subject to DOT Regulations......Page 1414
References......Page 1416
Bibliography......Page 1419