Environmental Chemistry: Fundamentals

Cover Page\r......Page 1
Front Matter\r......Page 2
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
Foreword......Page 5
Preface......Page 6
Table of Contents......Page 10
Part I\rIntroductory Concepts......Page 18
1.1 Chemistry of the Natural Processes in the Biosphere......Page 19
1.2 Chemistry Associated with Pollution Processes......Page 20
1.3 Chemistry Applied to the Analysis of Pollutants and Natural Compounds......Page 22
1.5 Green Chemistry......Page 24
1.6 Importance of Environmental Chemistry......Page 25
References and Further Reading......Page 26
2.1 Chemical Equilibria......Page 27
2.1.1 Equilibrium Values and Calculations......Page 28
2.1.2 Exchange Reaction Equilibria: Systems of the Type MLn/MLn_1 / .../ML/M......Page 30
2.2 Acid-Base Reactions......Page 32
2.2.2 Buffers......Page 33
2.2.3 Acid/Base Character of Oxides......Page 38
2.3 Redox Processes......Page 39
2.3.1 Latimer Diagrams......Page 42
2.3.2 Frost Diagrams......Page 43
2.3.3 Nernst Equation......Page 44
2.3.4 Pourbaix Diagrams......Page 46
2.3.5 The pE Scale......Page 54
References and Further Reading......Page 57
3.1.2 Modification of Properties of Metal Ions......Page 59
3.1.3 Geometry of Metal Complexes......Page 62
3.1.4 Inner and Outer Sphere Complexes......Page 63
3.1.6 The Chelate Effect......Page 64
3.1.7.1 Ligand-Exchange or Ligand Substitution Reactions......Page 66
3.2 Chemical Kinetics......Page 67
3.2.1.1 Dependence of the Rate of Reaction on Concentrations: The Rate Law......Page 69
3.2.2.2 First-Order Reactions......Page 70
3.2.3 Complex Reactions......Page 71
3.2.3.2 Opposing (Reversible) Reactions......Page 72
3.2.5 Catalysis......Page 73
3.2.6 Kinetics of Metal-Complex Dissociation......Page 74
3.3 Photochemical Processes......Page 75
3.3.2 Beer\'s Law......Page 76
3.4 Radiochemistry......Page 77
3.4.1 Decay kinetics......Page 78
3.4.2 Units of Radiation......Page 79
References and Further Reading......Page 80
Part2\rThe Chemistry of Natural Environmental\rProcesses......Page 82
4.1 Air......Page 83
4.2 How Did the Earth\'s Atmosphere Form?......Page 84
4.3 Amounts of Constituents in the Atmosphere......Page 85
4.4 Tropospheric Chemistry......Page 87
4.5 Physical Principles of the Greenhouse Effect......Page 88
4.6 Stratospheric Chemistry......Page 89
Additional Related Experiments/Activities......Page 90
References and Further Reading......Page 91
5.1.1.3 Crust......Page 92
5.1.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks......Page 93
5.2 Formation and Differentiation of Minerals and Ores......Page 94
5.3.1 Physical Weathering......Page 95
5.3.2 Chemical Weathering......Page 96
5.3.2.1 Dissolution and Precipitation of Solids......Page 101
5.3.2.2 Dissolution of Natural Oxides......Page 103
5.3.2.3 Stable and Metastable Solid Phases......Page 104
5.4 Soil Characteristics......Page 106
Related Experiments in the Companion Book......Page 107
References and Further Reading......Page 108
6.1.1 Processes That Affect Water Composition......Page 110
6.1.2 Rainwater......Page 113
6.1.3 Surface Water......Page 114
6.1.3.1 Stream and River Water......Page 115
6.1.3.2 Lake Water......Page 117
6.1.4 Groundwater......Page 119
6.1.5 Seawater......Page 120
6.1.6 Brackish/Saline Water......Page 122
6.2.1 Gas Dissolution and Acidification of Natural Waters......Page 124
6.2.1.1 Henry \'s Law......Page 125
6.2.1.2 Dissolved Oxygen in Water......Page 126
6.2.1.3 Dissolution of C02 in Water......Page 128
6.2.2 Interactions between Water and Sediments/Soil......Page 129
6.3.1.1 Acid-Base Reactions......Page 130
6.3.1.2 Redox Reactions......Page 133
6.3.1.3 Complex Formation......Page 136
6.3.1.4 Speciation......Page 137
6.3.1.5 Colloids: Properties, Types, Sources, and Formation......Page 138
6.3.1.6 Photochemical Reactions......Page 140
6.3.2.1 Sorption onto Colloidal, Suspended, or Settled Sediments......Page 142
6.3.2.2 Ion Exchange in Sediments and in Aqueous Colloidal and Suspended Matter......Page 143
6.3.2.5 Colloidal and Sediment Transport into Surface Water......Page 145
Additional Related Experiments/Activites......Page 146
References and Further Reading......Page 149
7.1 Classification of Living Organisms......Page 151
7.2 Nutritional Classification of Organisms......Page 154
7.3 Basic Aspects of Ecology......Page 156
7.3.1.2 Land......Page 157
7.3.1.3 Water......Page 158
7.3.2 Trophic Levels......Page 159
7.3.3 Non-feeding Relations Among Species......Page 160
7.3.4 Sustainability of Ecosystems......Page 161
7.4.2 Hydrogen Cycle......Page 162
7.4.3 Carbon Cycle......Page 163
7.4.4 Oxygen Cycle......Page 164
7.4.5.1 Fixation......Page 166
7.4.5.2 Ammonification......Page 167
7.4.5.4 Nitrate Reduction and Denitrification......Page 168
7.4.6.1 Sulfur Mineralization......Page 169
7.4.6.2 Oxidation of Sulfide and of Elemental Sulfur......Page 170
7.4.7 Phosphorus Cycle......Page 171
7.4.8 Iron Cycle......Page 173
7.4.9 Interrelations Among Cycles......Page 174
Related Experiment in the Companion Book......Page 175
References and Further Reading......Page 176
Part3\rEffects, Treatment and Prevention\rof Pollution......Page 178
8.2 Sources of Chemical Substances as Contaminants and Pollutants......Page 179
8.3 Transport, Mobility, and Partition of Pollutants......Page 181
8.4.1.1 Main Air Pollutants......Page 185
8.4.1.2 Combustion Processes as the Main Air Pollution Source......Page 187
8.4.1.4 Smog Formation......Page 188
8.4.1.5 Stratospheric Ozone Destruction or the Ozone Hole......Page 189
8.4.1.6 Acid Rain......Page 190
8.4.1.7 Indoor Pollution......Page 191
8.4.2.1 Oxygen-Demanding Materials......Page 192
8.4.2.2 Nutrients......Page 194
8.4.2.4 Suspended Solids......Page 195
8.4.2.5 Oil and Grease Spills......Page 196
8.4.2.8 Detergents (Surfactants) and Nutrient Enrichment......Page 197
8.4.2.10 Heat......Page 198
8.4.3.1 Transformation of Pollutants in Soils......Page 199
8.4.3.3 Agriculture and the Chemistry of Soils......Page 200
8.4.3.4 Metals and Mining Processes......Page 201
Related Experiments in the Companion Book......Page 202
Additional Related Experiments/Activities......Page 203
References and Further Reading......Page 208
9.1.1 Biodegradable Substances and Biodegradation Processes......Page 210
9.1.2 Biotic Transformation Reactions......Page 211
9.1.3 Recalcitrance and Recalcitrant Compounds......Page 216
9.2 Hazardous and Non-hazardous Substances or Pollutants......Page 219
9.2.3 Factors That Affect the Toxicity of Chemical Substances......Page 220
9.3 Human Health Risk Assessment......Page 232
9.3.1 Hazard Identification......Page 233
9.3.2 Dose-Response Assessment......Page 234
9.3.2.1 Non-carcinogenic Risk Assessment......Page 235
9.3.2.2 Cancer Risk Assessment......Page 236
9.3.4 Risk Characterization......Page 238
9.3.5 Risk Management......Page 239
9.4 Ecotoxicology......Page 240
9.4.1 Methods of Ecotoxicology......Page 241
9.4.1.2 Bioassays......Page 242
9.4.2.2 Long-Term Toxicity Tests......Page 243
9.4.3 Bioconcentration, Bioaccumulation, and Biomagnification......Page 244
9.4.5 In Situ Monitoring......Page 245
9.4.7 Risk Assessment......Page 246
Related Experiment in the Companion Book......Page 247
References and Further Reading......Page 248
10.1.1 Redox Processes......Page 249
10.1.1.1 Chemical Oxidation and Incineration......Page 250
10.1.1.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP)......Page 261
10.1.1.3 Chemical Reduction......Page 265
10.1.2.1 Chemical Precipitation/Metal Immobilization......Page 267
10.1.2.3 Ion Exchange......Page 268
10.1.3.2 Aqueous Pollutants......Page 270
10.1.3.3 Soil Pollutants......Page 271
10.1.4.1 Direct and Indirect Processes......Page 272
10.1.4.3 Electrochemical Treatment of Gases......Page 273
10.1.4.4 Electrokinetic Treatment of Soils......Page 274
10.1.4.6 Hybrid Processes that Involve an Electrochemical Step for the Treatment of Aqueous Wastes......Page 275
10.2.1 Adsorption Processes......Page 276
10.2.3.1 Microwave Energy......Page 277
10.2.4.2 Magnetic Particles......Page 278
10.2.5 Filtration Methods......Page 279
10.3 Combined Treatments......Page 280
Additional Related Experiments/Activities......Page 281
References and Further Reading......Page 284
11.1.2 Primary Treatment......Page 288
11.1.3.1 Aerobic Processes......Page 289
11.1.3.2 Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater......Page 293
11.1.3.3 Biological Nutrient Removal......Page 295
11.1.4 Tertiary Treatment......Page 299
11.2 Sludge Treatment Options......Page 300
11.2.4 Lime Stabilization......Page 301
11.4 Biological Treatment of Soil and Groundwater......Page 302
11.4.1 In situ Bioremediation......Page 303
11.4.3.2 In Situ Biorestoration......Page 304
11.4.4 Marine Oil Spills......Page 305
11.5 Biological Treatment of Volatile Compounds......Page 306
References and Further Reading......Page 307
12.2 Life-Cycle Assessment......Page 308
12.3.1 Prevent Waste Production......Page 309
12.3.3 Design Good Syntheses......Page 310
12.3.4 Use Alternative Feedstock/Starting Materials......Page 311
12.3.5 Minimize Waste Using Catalytic Reactions......Page 314
12.3.6 Avoid Temporary Modifications......Page 316
12.3.7 Maximize the Use of Starting Materials......Page 317
12.3.8.1 Ionic Liquids (lLs)......Page 320
12.3.8.2 Fluorous Compounds and Solvents......Page 324
12.3.8.3 Supercritical Fluids......Page 325
12.3.8.5 Aqueous Systems......Page 327
12.3.9 Energy Requirements......Page 328
12.3.9.2 Green Photochemistry......Page 329
12.3.10.1 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers......Page 330
12.3.11 Optimize Monitoring and Control......Page 331
Additional Related Experiments/Activities......Page 332
References and Further Reading......Page 334
Index......Page 336