Environmental Biotechnology Volume 4 (Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World, 68)

Foreword
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Switching to Bioplastics for Sustaining our Environment
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Uncertainty of Life Without Plastics – A Myth
	1.3 Worldwide Demand for Plastics
	1.4 Classification of Plastics
		1.4.1 Fossil Fuel-Based Plastics
			1.4.1.1 Non-degradable Plastics
			1.4.1.2 Oxo-Degradable Plastics
			1.4.1.3 Biodegradable Plastics
		1.4.2 Renewable Resources-Based Plastics
			1.4.2.1 Compostable Plastics
			1.4.2.2 Biodegradable Bioplastics
	1.5 Differentiation Between Compostable, Biodegradable and Bio-based Plastics
	1.6 Understanding the Concept of Bioplastics
	1.7 A Dire Need for Switching to Bioplastics
	1.8 Raw Materials for Manufacturing Biodegradable Bioplastics and their Plausible Degradation Mechanisms
		1.8.1 Polylactic Acid
			1.8.1.1 Synthesis of Polylactic Acid
			1.8.1.2 Properties of Polylactic Acid
				Physicochemical Properties
				Thermal Properties
				Optical Properties
				Mechanical Properties
			1.8.1.3 Degradation Mechanism of Polylactic Acid
				Hydrolytic Degradation of Polylactic Acid
				Thermal Degradation
				Environmental Degradation of Polylactic Acid
		1.8.2 Polyglycolic Acid
			1.8.2.1 Synthesis of Polyglycolic Acid
				Direct Polycondensation Polymerization
				Azeotropic Distillation
				Ring-Opening Polymerization
			1.8.2.2 Properties of Polyglycolic Acid
			1.8.2.3 Degradation of Polyglycolic Acid
		1.8.3 Polylactic-Co-Glycolic Acid
			1.8.3.1 Synthesis of Polylactic-Co-Glycolic Acid
			1.8.3.2 Physicochemical Properties of Polylactic-Co-Glycolic Acid
			1.8.3.3 Degradation of Polylactic Acid-Co-Glycolic Acid
		1.8.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
			1.8.4.1 Synthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
			1.8.4.2 Properties of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
			1.8.4.3 Degradation Mechanism of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
	1.9 Future of Bioplastics
	1.10 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 2: Bioenergy Production from Wastewater Resources Using Clostridium Species
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Types of Wastewater and Its Composition
	2.3 Integration of Wastewater and Bioenergy Production
	2.4 Clostridia Era for Bioenergy Production
	2.5 Bioenergy Production from Wastewater Resources Using Clostridium Species
		2.5.1 Biodiesel Industrial Wastewater
		2.5.2 Distillery Industrial Wastewater
		2.5.3 Beverage Industrial Wastewater
		2.5.4 Food Industrial Wastewater
		2.5.5 Municipal Sewage Sludge
		2.5.6 Anaerobic Digester Effluents
	2.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3: Management of Phosphate in Domestic Wastewater Treatment Plants
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Global Phosphate Rock Resources and Consumption
	3.3 Sources of Phosphate Pollution
		3.3.1 Point Source
		3.3.2 Non point Source
	3.4 Phosphate Leaching in the Atmosphere
	3.5 Phosphate in Sewage
	3.6 Treatment Technologies for Phosphate Removal
		3.6.1 Physical Treatment
			3.6.1.1 Filtration
			3.6.1.2 Magnetic Separation
			3.6.1.3 Membrane Technologies
		3.6.2 Chemical Treatment
			3.6.2.1 Chemical Dosing with Iron and Aluminium
			3.6.2.2 Addition of Minerals
			3.6.2.3 Lime Clarification
			3.6.2.4 Adsorptive Removal of Phosphate
			3.6.2.5 Crystallization
		3.6.3 Biological Phosphate Removal
			3.6.3.1 Enhanced Biological Phosphate Removal
				Denitrifying Phosphate Removal
				Alteration in Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal (EBPR)
			3.6.3.2 Phosphate Removal by Microalgae
			3.6.3.3 Phosphate Removal by Macrophyte
			3.6.3.4 Phosphate Removal in Constructed Wetland
		3.6.4 Combined Biological/Chemical Method
	3.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4: Agricultural Waste: A Potential Solution to Combat Heavy Metal Toxicity
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Heavy Metals and Their Effect on Human Health
	4.3 Agricultural Waste as Biosorbents for Heavy Metal Removal
		4.3.1 Benefits of Using Agricultural Waste as Biosorbents
		4.3.2 Selection of Agricultural Waste as Biosorbents
		4.3.3 Mechanisms Involved in Heavy Metal Removal
	4.4 Modification Methods for Agricultural Waste Biosorbents
	4.5 Factors Affecting the Biosorptive Removal of Heavy Metals
		4.5.1 pH
		4.5.2 Temperature
		4.5.3 Initial Concentration of Metal Ions
		4.5.4 Biosorbent Dosage
		4.5.5 Ionic Strength
	4.6 Different Agriculture Wastes Used as Sorbents
		4.6.1 Potato Peels
		4.6.2 Coconut Shell
		4.6.3 Banana Peels
		4.6.4 Groundnut Shells
		4.6.5 Orange Peels
		4.6.6 Sawdust
	4.7 Conclusion and Future Aspects
	References
Chapter 5: Current Trends and Emerging Technologies for Pest Control Management of Rice (Oryza sativa) Plants
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Life Cycle of Rice Plants and Their Developmental Phases
		5.2.1 Vegetative Phase
		5.2.2 Reproductive Phase
		5.2.3 Ripening Phase
	5.3 Diseases Caused in Rice Plants Due to Pest Infestations
		5.3.1 Diseases Caused by Bacterial Infestations
		5.3.2 Diseases Caused by Fungal Infestations
		5.3.3 Diseases Caused by Viral Infestations
		5.3.4 Diseases Caused by Insect Infestations
			5.3.4.1 Early Vegetative Insect Pests
			5.3.4.2 Root Feeders
			5.3.4.3 Stem Borers
			5.3.4.4 Leaf and Planthoppers
			5.3.4.5 Defoliators and Other Pests
	5.4 Pest Control Management
		5.4.1 Synthetic Chemicals and Their Formulations
		5.4.2 Biological Agents, Green Constituents and Their Formulations
		5.4.3 Novel Techniques, Technologies and Materials for Pest Control
			5.4.3.1 Smart Farming Techniques
			5.4.3.2 Nano-Technological Solutions
			5.4.3.3 Emulsion Based Formulations
			5.4.3.4 Carbohydrates Polymer-Based Materials
			5.4.3.5 Development of Pest-Resistant Varieties of Plants
	5.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 6: Comet Assay: Is it a Sensitive Tool in Ecogenotoxicology?
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Ecosystem
		6.2.1 Biotic Components
		6.2.2 Abiotic Components
		6.2.3 Terrestrial Ecosystem
	6.3 Human Activities Influence the Ecosystem
		6.3.1 Organic Pollutants Due to Industrialization
	6.4 Genotoxicity Versus Cytotoxicity
		6.4.1 Mutagens Versus Carcinogens
		6.4.2 Genotoxicity Assay and Its Types
		6.4.3 Importance of Genotoxicity Assay
			6.4.3.1 Ames Test
			6.4.3.2 Micronucleus Assay
				Micronucleus Induction
				Merits of Micronuclei Test
			6.4.3.3 Comet Assay
				Calculation of DNA Comets
				Applications of Comet Assay
		6.4.4 Terrestrial Ecotoxicology and Ecogenotoxicology
			6.4.4.1 Earthworm Studies
			6.4.4.2 Comet Assay in Construction of Food Web
			6.4.4.3 Plant Studies
			6.4.4.4 Avians and Rodents
			6.4.4.5 Translational Ecotoxicology Research from Rodents to Humans: A Landmark Achievement
	6.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7: Drosophila melanogaster as a Model to Study Acrylamide Induced Toxicity and the Effects of Phytochemicals
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Acrylamide Induced Toxicity – D. melanogaster Model
	7.3 Acrylamide Induced Neurotoxicity in D. melanogaster Models
	7.4 Effects of Acrylamide Induced Toxicity in the Cellular Level
	7.5 Neurotoxic Studies on Animals
	7.6 The Role of Phytochemicals in Reducing the Acrylamide Toxicity
	7.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8: Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Are Nanocarrier for Drug Loading and Induces Cell Death in Breast Cancer
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Breast Cancer
		8.2.1 Types of Breast Cancer
		8.2.2 Genetics of Breast Cancer
	8.3 Modern Breast Cancer Therapy and Limitation
		8.3.1 Surgery
		8.3.2 Chemotherapy
		8.3.3 Radiation Therapy
	8.4 Role of Natural Compounds in Breast Cancer Therapy
		8.4.1 Curcumin Structure and Function
	8.5 Cancer Drug Targeting and Delivery
		8.5.1 Active Drug Targeting
		8.5.2 Passive Drug Targeting
		8.5.3 Novel Drug Delivery System (NDDS)
	8.6 Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles
		8.6.1 Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle Types
		8.6.2 Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle Using as a Carrier
		8.6.3 Controlled Drug Delivery System
	8.7 Drug Loaded Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles Induced Cell Death
		8.7.1 Curcumin Loaded MCM-41 Induced Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7) Cell Death
	8.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 9: Insights on the Biotechnological Applications of Marine Fungal Exopolysaccharides
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Characteristics of Exopolysaccharides from Marine-Derived Fungi
	9.3 Role of Marine Fungal Exopolysaccharides in Medicine
		9.3.1 Antitumor Activity
		9.3.2 Antioxidant Activity
	9.4 Role of Marine Fungal Exopolysaccharides in the Food Industry
	9.5 Role of Marine Fungal Exopolysaccharides in Oil Recovery
	9.6 Role of Marine Fungal Exopolysaccharides in the Cosmetic Industry
	9.7 Role of Marine Fungal Exopolysaccharides in Biosorption
	9.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References