Environmental and Agricultural Microbiology: Applications for Sustainability

Cover
Half-Title Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Part 1: MICROBIAL BIOREMEDIATIONAND BIOPOLYMER TECHNOLOGY
	1 A Recent Perspective on Bioremediation of Agrochemicals by Microalgae: Aspects and Strategies
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Pollution Due to Pesticides
			1.2.1 Acute Effects
			1.2.2 Chronic Effects
		1.3 Microalgal Species Involved in Bioremediation of Pesticides
		1.4 Strategies for Phycoremediation of Pesticides
			1.4.1 Involvement of Enzymes in Phycoremediation of Pesticides
			1.4.2 Use of Genetically Engineered Microalgae
		1.5 Molecular Aspects of Pesticide Biodegradation by Microalgae
		1.6 Factor Affecting Phycoremediation of Pesticides
			1.6.1 Biological Factor
			1.6.2 Chemical Factor
			1.6.3 Environment Factor
		1.7 Benefit and Shortcomings of Phycoremediation
			1.7.1 Benefits
			1.7.2 Shortcomings
		1.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
2 Microalgal Bioremediation of Toxic Hexavalent Chromium: A Review
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 Chromium Cycle
	2.2 Effects of Hexavalent Chromium Toxicity
		2.2.1 Toxicity to Microorganisms
		2.2.2 Toxicity to Plant Body
		2.2.3 Toxicity to Animals
	2.3 Chromium Bioremediation by Microalgae
		2.3.1 Cyanobacteria
		2.3.2 Green Algae
		2.3.3 Diatoms
	2.4 Mechanism Involved in Hexavalent Chromium Reduction in Microalgae
	2.5 Conclusion
	References
3 Biodetoxification of Heavy Metals Using Biofilm Bacteria
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Source and Toxicity of Heavy Metal Pollution
		3.2.1 Non-Essential Heavy Metals
		3.2.2 Essential Heavy Metals
	3.3 Biofilm Bacteria
	3.4 Interaction of Metal and Biofilm Bacteria
	3.5 Biodetoxification Mechanisms
		3.5.1 Biosorption
		3.5.2 Bioleaching
		3.5.3 Biovolatilization
		3.5.4 Bioimmobilization
	3.6 Conclusion
	References
4 Microbial-Derived Polymers and Their Degradability Behavior for Future Prospects
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Polyamides
		4.2.1 Bioavailability and Production
		4.2.2 Biodegradability of Polyamides
		4.2.3 Degradation of Nylon 4 Under the Soil
		4.2.4 Fungal Degradation of Nylon 6 and Nylon 66 (Synthetic Polyamide)
		4.2.5 Itaconic Acid-Based Heterocyclic Polyamide
		4.2.6 Summary and Future Development
	4.3 Polylactic Acid
		4.3.1 Availability and Production
		4.3.2 Polymerization Method
		4.3.3 Biodegradability of Polylactic Acid
		4.3.4 Copolymerization Method
		4.3.5 Blending Method
		4.3.6 Nanocomposite Formation
		4.3.7 Summary
	4.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
		4.4.1 Biosynthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
		4.4.2 Application of PHAs
		4.4.3 Biodegradability of PHAs
		4.4.4 Degradability Methods
		4.4.5 Summary
	4.5 Conclusion and Future Development
	References
5 A Review on PHAs: The Future Biopolymer
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Green Plastic: Biodegradable Polymer Used as Plastic
	5.3 Difference Between Biopolymer and Bioplastic
	5.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
	5.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates and Its Applications
	5.6 Microorganisms Producing PHAs
	5.7 Advantages
	5.8 Conclusion and Future Prospective
	References
6 Polyhydroxybutyrate as an Eco-Friendly Alternative of Synthetic Plastics
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Bioplastics
	6.3 Bioplastics vs. Petroleum-Based Plastics
	6.4 Classification of Biodegradable Polymers
	6.5 PHB-Producing Bacteria
	6.6 Methods for Detecting PHB Granules
	6.7 Biochemical Pathway for Synthesis of PHB
	6.8 Production of PHB
		6.8.1 Process Optimization for PHB Production
		6.8.2 Optimization of PHB Production by One Variable at a Time Approach
		6.8.3 Statistical Approaches for PHB Optimization
	6.9 Production of PHB Using Genetically Modified Organisms
	6.10 Characterization of PHB
	6.11 Various Biochemical Techniques Used for PHB Characterization
		6.11.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
		6.11.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry
		6.11.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis
		6.11.4 X-Ray Powder Diffraction (XRD)
		6.11.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
		6.11.6 Microscopic Techniques
		6.11.7 Elemental Analysis
		6.11.8 Polarimetry
		6.11.9 Molecular Size Analysis
	6.12 Biodegradation of PHB
	6.13 Application Spectrum of PHB
	6.14 Conclusion
	6.15 Future Perspectives
	Acknowledgements
	References
7 Microbial Synthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and Their Applications
	Abbreviations
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Conventional Plastics and Its Issues in Utility
		7.2.1 Synthetic Plastic and Its Accumulation or Degradation Impacts
	7.3 Bioplastics
		7.3.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
	7.4 Fermentation for PHAs Production
	7.5 Downstream Process for PHAs
	7.6 Conclusions
	References
8 Polyhydroxyalkanoates for Sustainable Smart Packaging of Fruits
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Physiological Changes of Fresh Fruits During Ripening and Minimal Processing
	8.3 Smart Packaging
	8.4 Biodegradable Polymers for Fruit Packaging
	8.5 Legal Aspects of Smart Packaging
	8.6 Pros and Cons of Smart Packaging Using PHAs
	8.7 Conclusion
	References
9 Biosurfactants Production and Their Commercial Importance
	Abbreviations
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Chemical Surfactant Compounds
		9.2.1 Biosurfactant Compounds
	9.3 Properties of Biosurfactant Compound
		9.3.1 Activities of Surface and Interface Location
		9.3.2 Temperature and pH Tolerance
		9.3.3 Biodegradability
		9.3.4 Low Toxicity
		9.3.5 Emulsion Forming and Breaking
	9.4 Production of Biosurfactant by Microbial Fermentation
		9.4.1 Factors Influencing the Production of Biosurfactants
	9.5 Advantages, Microorganisms Involved, and Applications of Biosurfactants
		9.5.1 Advantages of Using Biosurfactants
		9.5.2 Microbial Sources
		9.5.3 Production of Biosurfactants
	9.6 Conclusions
	References
Part 2: MICROBES IN SUSTAINABLEAGRICULTURE AND BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
	10 Functional Soil Microbes: An Approach Toward Sustainable Horticulture
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Rhizosphere Microbial Diversity
		10.3 Plant Growth–Promoting Rhizobacteria
			10.3.1 Nitrogen Fixation
			10.3.2 Production of Phytohormones
			10.3.3 Production of Enzymes That can Transform Crop Growth
			10.3.4 Microbial Antagonism
			10.3.5 Solubilization of Minerals
			10.3.6 Siderophore and Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) Production
			10.3.7 Cyanide (HCN) Production
			10.3.8 Plant Growth–Promoting Rhizobacteria on Growth of Horticultural Crops
		10.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
11 Rhizosphere Microbiome: The Next-Generation Crop Improvement Strategy
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Rhizosphere Engineering
	11.3 Omics Tools to Study Rhizosphere Metagenome
		11.3.1 Metagenomics
		11.3.2 Metaproteomics
		11.3.3 Metatranscriptomics
		11.3.4 Ionomics
	11.4 As Next-Generation Crop Improvement Strategy
	11.5 Conclusion
	References
12 Methane Emission and Strategies for Mitigation in Livestock
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Contribution of Methane from Livestock
	12.3 Methanogens
		12.3.1 Rumen Microbial Community
		12.3.2 Methanogens Found in Rumen
		12.3.3 Enrichment of Methanogens from Rumen Liquor
		12.3.4 Screening for Methane Production
		12.3.5 Isolation of Methanogens
		12.3.6 Molecular Characterization
	12.4 Methanogenesis: Methane Production
		12.4.1 Pathways of Methanogenesis
		12.4.2 Pathway of CO2 Reduction
		12.4.3 CO2 Reduction to Formyl-Methanofuran
		12.4.4 Conversion of the Formyl Group from FormylMethanofuran to Formyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin
		12.4.5 Formation of Methenyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin
		12.4.6 Reduction of Methenyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin to Methyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin
		12.4.7 Reduction of Methyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin to Methyl-S-Coenzyme M
		12.4.8 Reduction of Methyl-S-Coenzyme M to CH4
	12.5 Strategies for Mitigation of Methane Emission
		12.5.1 Dietary Manipulation
		12.5.2 Feed Additives
		12.5.3 Microbial Feed Additives
		12.5.4 Animal Breeding and Selection
	12.6 Conclusion
	References
13 Liquid Biofertilizers and Their Applications: An Overview
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Chemical Fertilizer and its Harmful Effect
	13.2 Biofertilizers “Boon for Mankind”
	13.3 Carrier-Based Biofertilizers
		13.3.1 Solid Carrier-Based Biofertilizers
		13.3.2 Liquid Biofertilizer
	13.4 Sterilization of the Carrier
	13.5 Merits of Using Liquid Biofertilizer Over Solid Carrier-Based Biofertilizer
	13.6 Types of Liquid Biofertilizer
	13.7 Production of Liquid Biofertilizers
		13.7.1 Isolation of the Microorganism
		13.7.2 Preparation of Medium and Growth Condition
		13.7.3 Culture and Preservation
		13.7.4 Preparation of Liquid Culture
		13.7.5 Fermentation and Mass Production
		13.7.6 Formulation of the Liquid Biofertilizers
	13.8 Applications of Biofertilizers
	13.9 Conclusion
	References
14 Extremozymes: Biocatalysts From Extremophilic Microorganisms and Their Relevance in Current Biotechnology
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Extremophiles: The Source of Novel Enzymes
		14.2.1 Thermophilic Extremozymes
		14.2.2 Psychrophilic Extremozymes
		14.2.3 Halophilic Extremozymes
		14.2.4 Alkaliphilic/Acidiophilic Extremozymes
		14.2.5 Piezophilic Extremozymes
	14.3 The Potential Application of Extremozymes in Biotechnology
	14.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
15 Microbial Chitinases and Their Applications: An Overview
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Chitinases and Its Types
	15.3 Sources of Microbial Chitinase
		15.3.1 Bacterial Chitinases
		15.3.2 Fungal Chitinases
		15.3.3 Actinobacteria
		15.3.4 Viruses/Others
	15.4 Genetics of Microbial Chitinase
	15.5 Biotechnological Advances in Microbial Chitinase Production
		15.5.1 Media Components
		15.5.2 Physical Parameters
		15.5.3 Modes and Methods of Fermentation
		15.5.4 Advances Biotechnological Methods
	15.6 Applications of Microbial Chitinases
		15.6.1 Agricultural
		15.6.2 Biomedical
		15.6.3 Pharmaceutical
		15.6.4 Industrial
		15.6.5 Environmental
		15.6.6 Others
	15.7 Conclusion
	References
16 Lithobiontic Ecology: Stone Encrusting Microbes and their Environment
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Diversity of Lithobionts and Its Ecological Niche
		16.2.1 Epiliths
		16.2.2 Endoliths
		16.2.3 Hypoliths
	16.3 Colonization Strategies of Lithobionts
		16.3.1 Temperature
		16.3.2 Water Availability
		16.3.3 Light Availability
	16.4 Geography of Lithobbiontic Coatings
		16.4.1 Bacteria
		16.4.2 Cyanobacteria
		16.4.3 Fungi
		16.4.4 Algae
		16.4.5 Lichens
	16.5 Impacts of Lithobiontic Coatings
		16.5.1 On Organic Remains
		16.5.2 On Rock Weathering
		16.5.3 On Rock Coatings
	16.6 Role of Lithobionts in Harsh Environments
	16.7 Conclusion
	Acknowledgement
	References
17 Microbial Intervention in Sustainable Production of Biofuels and Other Bioenergy Products
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Biomass
	17.3 Biofuel
		17.3.1 Biodiesel
		17.3.2 Bioalcohol
		17.3.3 Biogas
		17.3.4 Biohydrogen
	17.4 Other Bioenergy Products
		17.4.1 Microbial Fuel Cells
		17.4.2 Microbial Nanowires in Bioenergy Application
		17.4.3 Microbial Nanowires in Bioenergy Production
	17.5 Conclusion
	References
18 Role of Microbes and Microbial Consortium in Solid Waste Management
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Types of Solid Waste
		18.2.1 Domestic Wastes
		18.2.2 Institutional and Commercial Wastes
		18.2.3 Wastes From Street Cleansing
		18.2.4 Industrial Wastes
		18.2.5 Nuclear Wastes
		18.2.6 Agricultural Wastes
	18.3 Waste Management in India
	18.4 Solid Waste Management
		18.4.1 Municipal Solid Waste Management
	18.5 Solid Waste Management Techniques
		18.5.1 Incineration
		18.5.2 Pyrolysis and Gasification
		18.5.3 Landfilling
		18.5.4 Aerobic Composting
		18.5.5 Vermicomposting
		18.5.6 Anaerobic Digestion
		18.5.7 Bioethanol From Various Solid Wastes
	18.6 Conclusion
	References
Index