Entrepreneurship and Social Entrepreneurship in the MENA Region: Advances in Research

Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
Introduction
Part I: Entrepreneurship: Trends and Concepts
	1: The Intersection of Social Entrepreneurship, Sustainability, and the UN SDGs in the Arab World: A Humane Entrepreneurship Perspective
		The Arab Ecosystem
		Entrepreneurship and Sustainability: What Can Be Done?
			The Ancestors of Social Entrepreneurship
			Understanding that Culture Matters
			Social Entrepreneurship as the Next Rung on the Giving Ladder
		Beyond Social Entrepreneurship: Possible Solutions for Sustainable Change in the Arab World
		The Theory of Humane Entrepreneurship
		Qualification of HumEnt
		Looking Further: Who Is Considered When Sustainable Patterns Are Created?
			An Arab Ecosystem
		Conclusion
			Bringing It All Together
			Final Thoughts
		Appendix
		References
	2: Entrepreneurship: Social Entrepreneurship in the Arab World—Innovation and Entrepreneurship
		What Is Entrepreneurship?
		Innovation and Invention
		Innovation
		Innovations in Business
			Categories of Business Innovation
			Approaches of Innovation
		Examples of Innovation
			Product Innovation
			Process Innovation
			Business Model Innovation
		Opportunities and Sources of Innovation
		Social Innovations
		Systematic Innovation
		Why Does Entrepreneurship Matter?
		Why Entrepreneurship in the Arab World?
Part II: Entrepreneurship in the Arab World
	3: Entrepreneurship and Social Entrepreneurship: A Trend or a Real Factor for a Prosperous Future?
		The Current Economic Situation in the Arab World
		Entrepreneurship and Social Entrepreneurship as Trends
		Entrepreneurship and Social Entrepreneurship as a Real Factor of Growth
		Entrepreneurship and Social Entrepreneurship as Actors for Better Future
		Conclusion
		References
	4: A Review and Research Agenda on the Determinants of Entrepreneurial Orientation and its Implications on Firm Performance: Tackling SMEs in Emerging Economies
		Introduction
		Entrepreneurship and SMEs’ Contribution to Developing Economies
			Entrepreneurial Orientation and Interrelationship with Firm Performance
		Firm Resources, Dynamic Capabilities (DCs) and Entrepreneurial Orientation
		Social Capital and Entrepreneurial Orientation
		Additional Theoretical Lenses
			Self-Efficacy
			Subjectivist Theory of Entrepreneurship
			Entrepreneurial Dominant Logic (DL)
			Organizational Culture and Structure
		Conclusion
		References
	5: Women in Entrepreneurship and Social Entrepreneurship in the Arab World
		Introduction
		The Paradoxes of the Arab World Regarding Women
			Why, Despite Impactful Governmental Measures and One of the Highest Education Levels in the World, the Female Labour Force Participation Remains One of the Weakest in the World?
				Impactful Numerous Governmental Measures for Two Decades
				One of the Strongest Performances in Girls’ Education in the World
				Despite These Significant Improvements in Women Rights and Status, the Arab World Scores One of the Lowest Female Labor Force Participation Rate in the World
				A Mix of Structural and Contextual Reasons: Heavy Social Norms and High Unemployment Rate Undermine Women’s Participation in the Workforce
		Women’s Entrepreneurship
			An Opportunity to Enter the Labor Force and to Thrive
				Despite Low Figures in Female Entrepreneurship, Women-Owned and Led Businesses Stand Out in the Service Sector
				Women Consider the Digital Field as a Tremendous Opportunity for Entrepreneurship, Where Everything is Possible
				What are the Key Drivers that Push Women to Create Their Businesses?
		Social Entrepreneurship for Women
			A Potential That Still Remains Untapped
				A Relatively Unknown Field Preempted by International Organizations and Donors
				A Field Led by the Success of Some Women-Led Digital Platforms with Massive Social Impact
		Women Entrepreneurs Still Face Heavy and Various Challenges
			The External Barriers are Only One Side of the Medal. On the Other Side and as a Consequence of a Long History of Restrictions, Some Women in the Arab World Also Face Internal Barriers
			Governments, Private Companies, and NGOs have Taken These Barriers into Account and are Starting to Create More Enabling Environments for Women Entrepreneurship
		The Covid Crisis has Brought New Forms of Female Leadership in the Arab World
			Women Need to Build Up More Women-Led Ecosystems
			Women Need to Act to Find Shared Innovation Solutions on a Regional Basis
		Conclusion
		References
			Articles
	6: Entrepreneurship and Education: Between Trendy and Usefulness
		Introduction
		Entrepreneurship Education: What & Why?
		Entrepreneurship Education in the Arab World
		Youth and Women Entrepreneurship in Arab Countries
		Entrepreneurship Education as a Pillar for Competitiveness
		Entrepreneurship Education and the Business Environment
		References
	7: Strategies for Managing Institutional Pressures in a Turbulent and Dynamic Institutional Context
		Introduction
		Theoretical Background: From Institutional Complexity to Institutional Pressures
		Methods
			Research Design
			Data Sources
			Data Analysis
		Analysis: Strategies for Managing Institutional Pressures in State-Business Relations in Algeria
		The Lion Case: The Strategy of Confrontation for External Change
			Motivations
				Protect the Organization from Blockages
				Radically Transform Institutions
			Approach
				Critical Position Towards the Decisions of the Public Authorities
				Revealing Public Institutions’ Inconsistencies and Dysfunctions
				Reinforcement of the Position as an Economic Actor
			Outcomes
		Chameleon’s Case: The Strategy of Proactive Collaboration and Change Through Compliance and Proximity
			Motivations
				Impulse a new “State-Business“ Relational Logic Through Concession
				Replace the State as an Actor-Partner
				Growing Sheltered from Pressure
			Approach
				Involvement and Collaboration in Socioeconomic Life
				Proximity to the Community and the Authorities
				Promotion of an Image of Progress and Development
			Outcomes
		The Fennec Case: The Ambiguous Strategy of Avoidance-Collaboration
			Motivations
				Maintain the Ethical Principles of the Organization
				Reduce Institutional Pressures and Sustain the Activities of the Organization
			Approach
				Proximity with Local Decision-Makers
				Discretion
				Strategic Reorientation
			Outcomes
		The Duck Case: A Strategy of Responsive Collaboration
			Motivations
				Evolve Near Sources of Pressure
				Work in Groups to Better Manage the Pressures
			Approach
				The Partnership with State Partners
				Rapprochement and Collaboration with the State
			Outcomes
		Discussion and Contributions
		Conclusion
		References
	8: The Cultural Side of Entrepreneurship in the Middle East: Religion, Gender and Family
		Introduction
		The Influence of Middle Eastern Culture in Business
			Culture as a Descriptive Term
			Regional Subcultures
		The Hofstede Framework for Assessing National Cultures
			Characteristics of Middle Eastern Cultures
		The Perception of Gender in Entrepreneurship
			Entrepreneurial Intentions
				Barriers to Entrepreneurship
			Women as Perceived in Media and Advertising
			The Working Woman Segment
		The Importance of Family Businesses
		The Role of Religion in Business
		References
	9: Social Entrepreneurship and Job Creation in the Lebanese Market
		Introduction
		Social Entrepreneurship: Stipulation and Particularities
			Entrepreneurship: What It Is and Is Not
			Social Entrepreneurship: Paradoxical Conceptualization
			Social Entrepreneurship Particularities: Neither Charitable nor Philanthropic
		The Social Entrepreneur: Pillar of Social Entrepreneurship
			The Social Entrepreneur’s Educational Qualifications and Training
			The Social Entrepreneur’s Previous Experience and Family History
			The Social Entrepreneur’s Financial Support
		Social Enterprise: The Idea Taking Form
			Innovation
			Scalability
			Institutionalization
		Firm Size and Job Creation
			Social Firm Size: Creation, Growing and Legal Identity
			Social Competitive Advantage and Sustainability
			Job Creation: Third Mission for Social Enterprise
		Conclusion
		References
Part III: Case Studies of Entrepreneurship
	10: The Influence of Entrepreneurship on the Arab Cultures and Economies: Reflections from Egypt’s Entrepreneurial Journey
		Overview
		AUC School of Business: The Journey
		Entrepreneurial Education
		Building the Entrepreneurial Ecosystem
		The Venture-Lab (V-Lab)
		Conclusion
		References
	11: Social Entrepreneurship as a New Institutional Field: Institutional Barriers in the Algerian Context
		Introduction
		Theoretical Background: Social Entrepreneurship as an Emerging Institutional Field
		Methodology
			Research Design
			Choice of Case and Empirical Context
			Data Sources
			Data Analysis
		Empirical Analyses: Social Entrepreneurship in Algeria
			Normative Pilar: Social Entrepreneurship Is not a Legitimate Endeavor
				The Stability Factor
				Entrepreneurship as a Peripheral Process
			The Rules and Regulations Pillar: SE in the Heart of an Entrepreneurial Void
				Persistent Institutional Void
				A Discouraging Institutional Framework
			Cultural-Cognitive Pillar: Social Entrepreneurship Is Foreign to Established Mental Schemata
				Conceptual Ambiguity
				Moral Tension
				Pragmatic Tension
		Discussion and Conclusion
		References
	12: Conclusion
		Entrepreneurship in the Arab World Is an Engine of Society’s Well Being
		An Overview of This Book’s Contributions
		References
Index