Engineering Psychology and Human Performance

Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1 Introduction
	1.1 Definitions
		1.1.1 Engineering Psychology
		1.1.2 Human Performance
	1.2 Research Methods
	1.3 A Model of Human Information Processing
	1.4 Pedagogy of the Book
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 2 Research Methods
	2.1 Overview of the Engineering Psychology Research Process
	2.2 Experimental Design
		2.2.1 Two­Condition Designs
		2.2.2 Details and Qualifiers of the Effect: More Than Two Conditions and Factorial Designs
		2.2.3 The Continuous Independent Variable
	2.3 Performance Measurement
	2.4 Participant Selection
	2.5 Statistical Analysis
		2.5.1 Problem 1: The All­or­None Interpretation of .05
		2.5.2 Problem 2: NHST Is Biased Toward the Status Quo
		2.5.3 Problem 3: Conventional NHST Practice Considers Values in Decision Making Bluntly and Inflexibly
		2.5.4 Problem 4: NHST Does Not Consider the Prior Probabilities of the Null and Alternative Hypotheses in Decision Making
			2.5.4.1 What Is to Be Done?
			2.5.4.2 Design and Analysis
			2.5.4.3 Presentation of Experimental Results
	2.6 Computational Modeling
		2.6.1 Analytic Equations
		2.6.2 Discrete Event Simulation Models
	2.7 Conclusion
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 3 Signal Detection and Absolute Judgment
	3.1 Overview
	3.2 Signal Detection Theory
		3.2.1 The Signal Detection Paradigm
		3.2.2 Setting the Response Criterion: Optimality in SDT
			3.2.2.1 Signal Probability
			3.2.2.2 Payoffs
			3.2.2.3 Human Performance in Setting Beta
		3.2.3 Sensitivity
	3.3 The ROC Curve
		3.3.1 Theoretical Representation
		3.3.2 Empirical Data
	3.4 Applications of Signal Detection Theory
		3.4.1 Medical Diagnosis
		3.4.2 Recognition Memory and Eyewitness Testimony
		3.4.3 Alarm and Alert Systems
	3.5 Vigilance
		3.5.1 Measuring Vigilance Performance
		3.5.2 Theories of Vigilance
		3.5.3 Techniques to Combat the Loss of Vigilance
			3.5.3.1 Increasing Sensitivity
			3.5.3.2 Shift in Response Criterion: The Following Methods May Be Useful in Shifting the Criterion to an Optimal Level
		3.5.4 Vigilance: Inside and Outside the Laboratory
	3.6 Absolute Judgment
		3.6.1 Quantifying Information
		3.6.2 Single Dimensions
			3.6.2.1 Experimental Results
			3.6.2.2 Applications
		3.6.3 Multidimensional Judgment
			3.6.3.1 Orthogonal Dimensions
			3.6.3.2 Correlated Dimensions
			3.6.3.3 Configural Dimensions
	3.7 Transition
	3.8 Supplement: Information Theory
		3.8.1 The Quantification of Information
			3.8.1.1 Number of Events
			3.8.1.2 Probability
			3.8.1.3 Sequential Constraints and Context
			3.8.1.4 Redundancy
		3.8.2 Information Transmission of Discrete Signals
		3.8.3 Conclusion
	3.9 Appendix: Computing D′ and Beta
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 4 Attention in Perception and Display Space
	4.1 Overview
	4.2 Selective Visual Attention
		4.2.1 Supervisory Control: The SEEV Model
		4.2.2 Noticing and Attentional Capture
			4.2.2.1 Failures: Change Blindness
			4.2.2.2 A Model of Noticing: The N­SEEV Model
			4.2.2.3 Inattentional Blindness
		4.2.3 Visual Search
			4.2.3.1 The Serial Self-Terminating Search (SSTS) Model
			4.2.3.2 Qualifications of SSTS: Bottom-Up Factors
			4.2.3.3 Guided Search and Top-Down Factors
			4.2.3.4 The Useful Field of View
			4.2.3.5 Search Accuracy
		4.2.4 Clutter
		4.2.5 Directing and Guiding Attention
			4.2.5.1 Cue Location
			4.2.5.2 Cue Reliability
	4.3 Parallel Processing and Divided Attention
		4.3.1 Preattentive Processing and Perceptual Organization
		4.3.2 Spatial Proximity
		4.3.3 Object-Based Proximity
		4.3.4 Applications of Object-Based Attention
		4.3.5 The Proximity Compatibility Principle (PCP)
			4.3.5.1 Sensory/Perceptual Similarities
			4.3.5.2 Common Object
			4.3.5.3 Emergent Features
			4.3.5.4 Costs of Focused Attention: Is There a Free Lunch?
	4.4 Attention in the Auditory Modality
		4.4.1 Auditory Divided Attention
		4.4.2 Focusing Auditory Attention
		4.4.3 Cross-Modality Attention
	4.5 Conclusion
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 5 Spatial Displays
	5.1 Graph Perception
		5.1.1 Graph Guidelines
		5.1.2 Task Dependency and the Proximity Compatibility Principle
		5.1.3 Minimize the Number of Mental Operations: Search, Encode, and Compare
			5.1.3.1 The Data–Ink Ratio and Graph Clutter
			5.1.3.2 Multiple Graphs
		5.1.4 Biases in Graph Reading
	5.2 Dynamic Indicators: Display Compatibility
		5.2.1 The Static Component: Pictorial Realism
		5.2.2 Color Coding
		5.2.3 Compatibility of Display Movement
		5.2.4 Display Integration and Ecological Interface Design
	5.3 The Third Dimension: Egomotion, Depth, and Distance
		5.3.1 Direct and Indirect Perception
		5.3.2 Perception of Egomotion: Ambient 3D
		5.3.3 Judging and Interpreting Depth and 3D Structure: Focal 3D
			5.3.3.1 Object-Centered Cues
			5.3.3.2 Observer-Centered Cues: Three Sources of Information About Depth Are Functions of Characteristics of the Human Visual System
			5.3.3.3 Effect of Distance on Cue Effectiveness
		5.3.4 Illusions in 3D Viewing
			5.3.4.1 3D Displays
			5.3.4.2 3D Displays of Real Space
			5.3.4.3 3D Displays of Synthetic Space
			5.3.4.4 3D Display Solutions: Enhancing Depth and Resolving Ambiguities
		5.3.5 Stereoscopic Displays
	5.4 Spatial Audio and Tactile Displays
	5.5 Summary
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 6 Spatial Cognition, Navigation, and Manual Control
	6.1 Taxonomy of Spatial Tasks
	6.2 Frames of Reference
	6.3 Cognitive Representation of Space
	6.4 Frame of Reference Transformations in 2D Mental Rotation
	6.5 3D Mental Rotation: The General FORT Model
	6.6 2D or Not 2D: That Is the Question
	6.7 Solutions to FOR Problems
		6.7.1 Training: Stages of Navigational Knowledge
		6.7.2 The GPS Navigation Display
	6.8 Individual Differences
	6.9 Applications to Map Design
		6.9.1 Design of 2D Maps
		6.9.2 Design of 3D Maps
		6.9.3 Map Scale
		6.9.4 The Role of Clutter in Map Search
			6.9.4.1 Causes of Map Clutter
			6.9.4.2 Database Overlay
			6.9.4.3 Clutter Solutions
	6.10 Environmental Design
	6.11 Information Visualization
		6.11.1 Tasks in Visualization
		6.11.2 Principles of Visualization
			6.11.2.1 Compatible Mapping of Dimensions
			6.11.2.2 Compatible Mapping of Data Structure
			6.11.2.3 Multiple Views
			6.11.2.4 Interaction
			6.11.2.5 Proximity Compatibility
			6.11.2.6 Animation
			6.11.2.7 Distorting Physical Properties
			6.11.2.8 Visualization of Uncertainty
			6.11.2.9 Conclusion
	6.12 Visual Momentum
	6.13 Tracking, Travel, and Continuous Manual Control
		6.13.1 Tracking to a Fixed Target
		6.13.2 Tracking a Moving Target
		6.13.3 What Makes Tracking Difficult
		6.13.4 Multi-Axis Tracking and Control
		6.13.5 Extensions of Tracking: An Example
	6.14 Virtual Environments and Augmented Reality
		6.14.1 Virtual Environment Characteristics
		6.14.2 Uses of Virtual Environments
			6.14.2.1 Training Applications
			6.14.2.2 Online Comprehension
			6.14.2.3 Performance and Experience in Vista and Environmental Space
			6.14.2.4 Therapeutic Applications
			6.14.2.5 Social Applications: Gaming, Multi-Agent Environments, and Collaborative Networking
		6.14.3 Augmented Reality and Head-Mounted Displays
		6.14.4 Problems for Virtual and Augmented Reality Environments
			6.14.4.1 Transition
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 7 Language and Communication
	7.1 Overview
	7.2 The Perception of Print
		7.2.1 Stages in Word Perception
			7.2.1.1 The Features as a Unit: Visual Search
			7.2.1.2 The Letter as a Unit: Automatic Processing
			7.2.1.3 The Word as a Unit: Word Shape
		7.2.2 Top-Down Processing: Context and Redundancy
		7.2.3 Reading: From Words to Sentences
	7.3 Applications of Unitization and Top-Down Processing
		7.3.1 Unitization
		7.3.2 Context-Data Trade-offs
		7.3.3 Code Design: Economy Versus Security
	7.4 Recognition of Objects
		7.4.1 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing
		7.4.2 Pictures and Icons
		7.4.3 Sounds and Earcons
	7.5 Comprehension
		7.5.1 Instructions
		7.5.2 Context
		7.5.3 Command Versus Status
		7.5.4 Linguistic Factors
			7.5.4.1 Negatives
			7.5.4.2 Absence of Cues
			7.5.4.3 Congruence and Order Reversals
		7.5.5 Working Memory Load
	7.6 Multimedia Instructions
		7.6.1 The Optimal Medium
		7.6.2 Redundancy and Complementarity
		7.6.3 Realism of Pictorial Material
	7.7 Product Warnings
	7.8 Communicating Health Risks
	7.9 Communicating Misinformation
	7.10 Speech Perception and Communications
		7.10.1 Representation of Speech
		7.10.2 Units of Speech Perception
			7.10.2.1 Phonemes
			7.10.2.2 Syllables
			7.10.2.3 Words
		7.10.3 Top-Down Processing of Speech
		7.10.4 Applications of Voice Recognition Research
		7.10.5 Communications
			7.10.5.1 Nonverbal Communications
			7.10.5.2 Video-Mediated Communications
		7.10.6 Crew Resource Management and Team Situation Awareness
	7.11 Transition: Perception to Memory
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 8 Memory and Training
	8.1 Overview
	8.2 Working Memory
		8.2.1 Working Memory Interference
			8.2.1.1 Code Interference
			8.2.1.2 Interference in the Central Executive
		8.2.2 The Central Executive and Executive Control
		8.2.3 Matching Display With Working Memory Code
		8.2.4 Limitations of Working Memory: Duration and Capacity
			8.2.4.1 Duration
			8.2.4.2 Capacity
			8.2.4.3 Chunking
	8.3 Interference and Confusion
	8.4 Expertise and Memory
		8.4.1 Expertise
		8.4.2 Expertise and Chunking
		8.4.3 Skilled Memory and Long-Term Working Memory
	8.5 Everyday Memory
		8.5.1 Prospective Memory
		8.5.2 Transactive Memory
	8.6 Situation Awareness
		8.6.1 Attention, Working Memory, and Situation Awareness
		8.6.2 Expertise in Situation Awareness
		8.6.3 Levels of SA and Anticipation
		8.6.4 Measuring SA and the Role of Awareness
		8.6.5 System-Level SA
		8.6.6 Team-Level SA
	8.7 Planning and Problem Solving
		8.7.1 Planning
		8.7.2 Problem Solving
	8.8 Training
		8.8.1 Transfer of Training
			8.8.1.1 Measuring Transfer
			8.8.1.2 Training System Fidelity
			8.8.1.3 Negative Transfer
		8.8.2 Training Techniques and Strategies
			8.8.2.1 Cognitive Load Theory
			8.8.2.2 Training Support and Error Prevention: Reducing Intrinsic Load
			8.8.2.3 Task Simplification: Reducing Intrinsic Load
			8.8.2.4 Adaptive Training
			8.8.2.5 Part-Task Training: Reducing Intrinsic Load
			8.8.2.6 Active Learning and the Testing Effect: Increasing Germane Load
			8.8.2.7 Multimedia Instruction: Decreasing Extraneous Load
			8.8.2.8 Feedback
			8.8.2.9 Faster-Than-Real-Time Training
			8.8.2.10 Practice and Overlearning
			8.8.2.11 The Expertise Effect
			8.8.2.12 Distribution of Practice
			8.8.2.13 Training–Transfer Dissociation
	8.9 Long-Term Memory: Representation, Organization, and Retrieval
		8.9.1 Knowledge Representation
		8.9.2 Memory Retrieval and Forgetting
			8.9.2.1 Recall and Recognition
			8.9.2.2 Event Memory
		8.9.3 Skill Retention
	8.10 Transition
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 9 Decision Making
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Classes and Features of Decision Making
		9.2.1 Uncertainty
		9.2.2 Judgment Versus Decision Making
		9.2.3 Classes of Decision-Making Research
	9.3 An Information Processing Model of Decision Making
	9.4 The Complementary Approaches of Naturalistic and Dynamic Decision Making
	9.5 What Is “Good” Decision Making?
	9.6 Diagnosis and Situation Assessment in Decision Making
		9.6.1 Estimating Cues: Perception
			9.6.1.1 The Mean
			9.6.1.2 Variability
			9.6.1.3 Proportions
			9.6.1.4 Projections
			9.6.1.5 Randomness
		9.6.2 Evidence Accumulation: Selective Attention, Cue Seeking, and Hypothesis Formation
			9.6.2.1 Information Cues Are Missing
			9.6.2.2 Cues Are Numerous: Information Overload
			9.6.2.3 Cues Are Differentially Salient
			9.6.2.4 Processed Cues Are Not Differentially Weighted
		9.6.3 Expectations in Diagnosis: The Role of Long-Term Memory
			9.6.3.1 Representativeness
			9.6.3.2 The Availability Heuristic
		9.6.4 Belief Changes Over Time
			9.6.4.1 Anchoring Heuristic and Adjustment Bias
			9.6.4.2 The Confirmation Bias
			9.6.4.3 Decision Fatigue
		9.6.5 Implications of Biases and Heuristics in Diagnoses
	9.7 Choice of Action
		9.7.1 Certain Choice
		9.7.2 Choice Under Uncertainty: The Expected Value Model
		9.7.3 Heuristics and Biases in Uncertain Choice
			9.7.3.1 Direct Retrieval
			9.7.3.2 Distortions of Values and Costs: Loss Aversion
			9.7.3.3 Temporal Discounting
			9.7.3.4 Perception of Probability
			9.7.3.5 The Framing Effect
		9.7.4 Influencing Decisions
			9.7.4.1 Behaving Safely
			9.7.4.2 Nudges
	9.8 Effort and Metacognition in Decision Making
		9.8.1 Effort
		9.8.2 Metacognition and (Over) Confidence
	9.9 Experience and Expertise in Decision Making
		9.9.1 Front-End Decision-Making Expertise
		9.9.2 Back-End Decision-Making Expertise
		9.9.3 Challenges and Deficiencies with Expert Decision Making
	9.10 Improving Decision Making
		9.10.1 Training and Debiasing
		9.10.2 Proceduralization
		9.10.3 Displays
		9.10.4 Automation and Decision Support Tools
	9.11 Conclusion and Transition
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 10 Selection of Action
	10.1 Variables Influencing Simple and Choice RT
		10.1.1 Stimulus Modality
		10.1.2 Stimulus Intensity
		10.1.3 Temporal Uncertainty
		10.1.4 Expectancy
		10.1.5 Operator Variables
	10.2 Variables Influencing the Choice in Choice Response Time
		10.2.1 The Information Theory Model: The Hick-Hyman Law
		10.2.2 The Speed–Accuracy Trade-off
			10.2.2.1 The Speed–Accuracy Operating Characteristic
			10.2.2.2 The Speed–Accuracy Micro-Trade-off
		10.2.3 Stimulus Discriminability
		10.2.4 The Repetition Effect
		10.2.5 Response Factors
		10.2.6 Practice
		10.2.7 S–R Compatibility
			10.2.7.1 Location Compatibility
			10.2.7.2 Movement Compatibility
			10.2.7.3 Transformations and Population Stereotypes
			10.2.7.4 Modality S–R Compatibility
			10.2.7.5 Consistency and Training
		10.2.8 Knowledge in the World
	10.3 Stages in Reaction Time
	10.4 Serial Responses
		10.4.1 The Psychological Refractory Period
		10.4.2 Decision Complexity: The Decision Complexity Advantage
		10.4.3 Pacing
		10.4.4 Response Factors
			10.4.4.1 Response Complexity
			10.4.4.2 Response Feedback
			10.4.4.3 Response Repetition
			10.4.4.4 Response Type
			10.4.4.5 Lockout of Incompatible Responses
		10.4.5 Preview and Transcription
	10.5 Errors
		10.5.1 Categories of Human Error: An Information Processing Approach
			10.5.1.1 Mistakes
			10.5.1.2 Slips
			10.5.1.3 Lapses
			10.5.1.4 Mode Errors
			10.5.1.5 Distinctions Between Error Categories
		10.5.2 Human Reliability Analysis
			10.5.2.1 Error Monitoring
			10.5.2.2 Non-Independence of Human Errors
			10.5.2.3 Integrating Human and Machine Reliabilities
		10.5.3 Errors in an Organizational Context
		10.5.4 Error Remedies
			10.5.4.1 Task Design
			10.5.4.2 Equipment Design
			10.5.4.3 Training
			10.5.4.4 Assists and Rules
			10.5.4.5 Error-Tolerant Systems
	10.6 Conclusion
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 11 Multitasking
	11.1 Overview
	11.2 Effort and Resource Demand
	11.3 Multiplicity of Resources
		11.3.1 Stages
		11.3.2 Processing Codes
		11.3.3 Perceptual Modalities
		11.3.4 Visual Channels
		11.3.5 A Computational Model
		11.3.6 General Resources
	11.4 Executive Control, Task Switching, and Resource Management
		11.4.1 Task Switching
		11.4.2 Interruption Management
			11.4.2.1 S1 Properties of the OT
			11.4.2.2 Switch 1 Properties of the Interrupting Task: Salience and Modality
			11.4.2.3 S2: Fluency of Return to the Ongoing Task
		11.4.3 From Interruption Management to Task Management
	11.5 Task Similarity, Confusion, and Crosstalk
	11.6 Individual Differences in Multitasking Success
		11.6.1 Categories of Individual Differences
		11.6.2 Correlates of Individual Differences in Switching
			11.6.2.1 Working Memory
			11.6.2.2 Executive Control
			11.6.2.3 Fluid Intelligence and the General Time-Sharing Ability
			11.6.2.4 Other Abilities
		11.6.3 The Tangled Web
	11.7 Expertise and Attention
		11.7.1 Training Expertise in Time-Sharing Skills
	11.8 Distracted Driving
		11.8.1 Mechanisms of Interference
		11.8.2 Cell Phone Interference
	11.9 Conclusion and Transition
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 12 Mental Workload and Stress
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Mental Workload
		12.2.1 Workload Overload
		12.2.2 Reserve Capacity Region
		12.2.3 Measures of Mental Workload and Reserve Capacity
			12.2.3.1 Behavioral Measures
			12.2.3.2 Secondary Tasks
			12.2.3.3 Subjective Measures
		12.2.4 Physiological Measures of Workload
			12.2.4.1 Overview
			12.2.4.2 EEG
			12.2.4.3 Event-Related Potentials
			12.2.4.4 Ultrasound Measures of Cerebral Blood Flow
			12.2.4.5 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Cerebral Oxygenation
			12.2.4.6 Heart Rate Variability
			12.2.4.7 Pupil Diameter
			12.2.4.8 Visual Scanning, Entropy, and the “Nearest Neighbor Index”
			12.2.4.9 Costs and Benefits of Physiological Measures of Workload
		12.2.5 Relationship Between Workload Measures
			12.2.5.1 Purpose of Workload Assessment
		12.2.6 Consequences of Workload
	12.3 Stress, Physiological Arousal, and Human Performance
		12.3.1 Arousal Theory
		12.3.2 The Yerkes-Dodson Law
		12.3.3 Transactional and Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Stress
		12.3.4 Stress Effects on Performance
		12.3.5 Stress Component Effects
			12.3.5.1 Selective Attention: Narrowing
			12.3.5.2 Selective Attention: Distraction
			12.3.5.3 Working Memory Loss
			12.3.5.4 Perseveration
			12.3.5.5 Strategic Control
		12.3.6 Stress Remediation
			12.3.6.1 Environmental Solutions
			12.3.6.2 Design Solutions
			12.3.6.3 Training
			12.3.6.4 Technostress
	12.4 Conclusions and Transition
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Chapter 13 Human–Automation Interaction
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Examples and Purposes of Automation
		13.2.1 Tasks that Humans Cannot Perform
		13.2.2 Human Performance Limitations
		13.2.3 Augmenting or Assisting Human Performance
		13.2.4 Economics
		13.2.5 Productivity
	13.3 Automation-Related Incidents and Accidents
	13.4 Levels and Stages of Automation
		13.4.1 Information Acquisition
		13.4.2 Information Analysis and Inference
		13.4.3 Decision Making and Action Selection
		13.4.4 Action Implementation
	13.5 Automation Complexity
	13.6 Feedback on Automation States and Behaviors
	13.7 Trust in and Dependence on Automation
		13.7.1 Trust and Dependence
		13.7.2 Correlated Influences on Trust and Dependence
		13.7.3 Overtrust: Complacency and the Automation Bias
			13.7.3.1 Overtrust: Failures to Notice and Understand Automation Failures
			13.7.3.2 Overdependence: Deskilling and OOTLUF
		13.7.4 Undertrust and Mistrust
	13.8 Mitigations to Human–Automation Interaction Problems
		13.8.1 Flexible Automation
		13.8.2 Choosing the Appropriate Degree of Automation
		13.8.3 Automation Transparency
		13.8.4 Training
		13.8.5 Individual Differences
		13.8.6 Designing for Human–Automation “Etiquette”
	13.9 Conclusions
	Key Terms
	Bibliography
Epilogue
Index