Enforcing obligations erga omnes in international law

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Series-title......Page 5
Title......Page 7
Copyright......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
Foreword......Page 15
Preface......Page 17
Notes on citation......Page 19
1. International Court of Justice......Page 20
2. Permanent Court of International Justice......Page 23
3. Arbitral Awards......Page 24
5. European Court/ Commission of Human Rights......Page 25
6. GATT/ WTO Reports......Page 26
7. Other International Decisions/ Proceedings......Page 27
8. National decisions......Page 28
Abbreviations......Page 30
1.......Page 35
2.......Page 39
3.......Page 46
4.......Page 50
PART I BACKGROUND TO THE ERGA OMNES CONCEPT......Page 51
1.1 Countermeasures and ICJ proceedings......Page 53
1.2 The notion of standing......Page 59
1.2.1 Standing as a normative concept......Page 62
1.2.2 Standing as a flexible concept......Page 66
1.2.3 The diversity of rules governing standing......Page 70
1.3 Standing to enforce individual legal positions......Page 74
1.3.1 The basis of the distinction......Page 75
1.3.2.a Bilateral legal rules and similar situations......Page 76
1.3.2.b Special injury......Page 78
1.4 Concluding observations......Page 80
2 Traditional approaches to standing......Page 82
2.1 Restrictive tendencies......Page 86
2.1.1 A structural analysis of multilateral obligations......Page 87
2.1.1.a Three categories of obligations......Page 88
2.1.1.b The legal regime......Page 92
2.1.2 A restrictive interpretation of treaty provisions: the South West Africa case......Page 97
2.2 Expansive tendencies......Page 103
2.2.1 Treaty-based rules of standing......Page 104
2.2.1.a Unequivocal treaty clauses......Page 105
2.2.1.b Equivocal clauses broadly interpreted: the Wimbledon case......Page 110
2.2.2.b Status treaties......Page 114
Background......Page 115
Standing to react against breaches......Page 117
2.2.2.c The duty to comply with judgments of the International Court of Justice......Page 121
2.2.2.d Basic humanitarian standards......Page 123
2.3 Concluding observations......Page 128
PART II LEGAL ISSUES RAISED BY THE ERGA OMNES CONCEPT......Page 131
3 Distinguishing types of erga omnes effects......Page 133
3.1 Terminological imprecision......Page 135
3.2 The traditional meaning of the term......Page 137
3.3 'Other' erga omnes effects in the icj's jurisprudence......Page 140
3.3.1 The traditional meaning......Page 141
3.3.2 The territorial restriction of obligations......Page 144
3.3.3 The descriptive function......Page 146
3.4 Concluding observations......Page 149
4 Identifying obligations erga omnes......Page 151
4.1 The question of sources......Page 154
4.1.1 The Court's jurisprudence......Page 155
4.1.2 Further considerations......Page 157
4.2 Distinguishing obligations erga omnes from other customary obligations......Page 162
4.2.1 The structural approach......Page 164
4.2.1.a The strong version......Page 165
4.2.1.b The moderate version......Page 167
4.2.1.c Interim conclusion......Page 169
4.2.2.a The point of reference......Page 170
4.2.2.b The required threshold of importance......Page 172
Obligations erga omnes and norms of jus cogens......Page 173
Beyond jus cogens: obligation erga omnes not deriving from peremptory norms......Page 185
4.3 Concluding observations......Page 190
5 Standing to institute ICJ proceedings......Page 192
5.1 The Barcelona Traction dictum......Page 196
5.2.1 Isolated pronouncements?......Page 199
5.2.2 An obiter dictum lacking legal relevance?......Page 201
5.2.3 The international community as the exclusive beneficiary?......Page 207
5.2.4 Contradictions within the judgment?......Page 210
5.2.5 Inconclusive jurisprudence since 1970?......Page 213
5.2.5.a The Nuclear Tests cases......Page 214
5.2.5.b The East Timor case......Page 216
Obligations erga omnes and the indispensable third-party rule......Page 217
The issue of standing......Page 219
5.2.5.d The Nicaragua case......Page 221
5.2.5.e The Gabcíkovo case......Page 224
5.2.5.f Summary......Page 226
5.2.6 A restrictive, contextual interpretation?......Page 227
5.3 Concluding observations......Page 230
6 Standing to take countermeasures......Page 232
6.1 The Court's jurisprudence......Page 235
6.1.1 The Barcelona Traction case......Page 236
6.1.2 The Namibia and Hostages cases......Page 238
6.1.3 The Nicaragua case......Page 239
6.2 International practice......Page 241
6.2.1 Specific instances of state practice......Page 242
6.2.1.a Actual violations......Page 243
Western countries – Uganda (1971–1978)......Page 244
G77 and socialist countries – colonial regimes (1970s–1990s)......Page 245
Western countries – Poland (1981)......Page 247
United States–Soviet Union (1981)......Page 248
Western countries – Argentina (1982)......Page 249
Western countries – South Africa (1985–1986)......Page 251
Various countries – Iraq (1990)......Page 253
European and Commonwealth countries – Nigeria (1995)......Page 254
African States – Burundi (1996)......Page 255
European countries – Yugoslavia (1998)......Page 257
Various countries – Zimbabwe (2002–2003)......Page 258
G7 declarations on aircraft hijacking (1978/1981)......Page 259
Western countries – Iran (1979–1980)......Page 260
Netherlands–Surinam (1982)......Page 261
6.2.1.d An assessment......Page 262
A preliminary evaluation......Page 264
Counter-arguments examined......Page 265
6.2.2 Governments' comments on the ILC's work on State responsibility......Page 275
6.2.2.a Comments made during the first reading......Page 276
6.2.2.b Comments made during the second reading......Page 279
6.2.2.c Interim conclusions......Page 282
6.3 Concluding observations......Page 283
7 Erga omnes enforcement rights and competing enforcement mechanisms......Page 286
7.1.1 Overlapping legal rules......Page 290
7.1.2 Different enforcement rights......Page 292
7.1.2.a Treaty-based systems of enforcementa survey......Page 293
7.1.2.b Specific types of conflict......Page 295
7.2.1.a Direct recourse by individuals......Page 297
7.2.1.b Institutional enforcement......Page 298
7.2.2.a General considerations......Page 302
The exclusivity thesis......Page 303
Guidelines for the analysis of specific conflicts......Page 310
7.2.2.b Contracting out of ICJ proceedings......Page 313
Non-exclusivity clauses......Page 314
Implied non-exclusivity......Page 316
Flexible exclusivity clauses......Page 317
7.2.2.c Contracting out of countermeasures......Page 320
No inter-State procedures available......Page 322
Inter-State procedures available......Page 323
Interim conclusion......Page 333
7.2.3.a Article 51 UNC......Page 334
7.2.3.b The effects of reservations......Page 336
7.3 Concluding observations......Page 338
1.......Page 340
2.......Page 343
Books and articles......Page 346
1. Texts on State responsibility......Page 382
a) Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice:......Page 383
5. Other documents......Page 384
Index......Page 385