Energy Portfolios

Energy Portfolios......Page 2
Contents......Page 4
List of Figures......Page 10
List of Tables......Page 14
List of Plates......Page 17
Preface......Page 18
Foreword......Page 20
Abbreviations and Acronyms......Page 22
Fuel and Process Definitions (source: IEA)......Page 23
Table of Contents......Page 0
SECTION-I: Energy from coal......Page 25
PREAMBLE......Page 26
1.1.2 Coal-bearing sedimentation sequences......Page 27
1.1.3 Importance of coal in the energy economy......Page 28
1.2.1 Carbon dioxide emissions and radiative forcing......Page 30
1.2.2 Biophysical and socioeconomic consequences of Global Warming......Page 33
1.3 COAL MINING TECHNOLOGIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 34
1.3.1.1 Mine layouts......Page 35
1.3.1.2 Projected advances......Page 37
1.3.2.1 Advantages......Page 39
1.3.2.2 Room-and-pillar method and longwall mining......Page 40
1.3.2.3 Special problems of underground mining of coal......Page 42
1.3.4 Environmental impact analysis of coal mining......Page 43
1.3.5 Rehabilitation of mined land......Page 44
1.3.6 Economics of environmental protection......Page 47
1.4.1 General considerations......Page 48
1.4.3 Disposal of coal mine tailings......Page 50
1.4.4 Subsidence......Page 51
1.4.5 Coal dusts during the coal cycle......Page 53
1.4.6 Environmental consequences of coal use in the steel industry......Page 55
1.4.6.1 Techniques for reducing gaseous pollutants in the steel industry......Page 58
1.5.1 Solid wastes......Page 59
1.5.2 Liquid wastes......Page 60
1.5.3 Emissions due to coal industries......Page 61
1.5.5 Beneficial use of mining wastes......Page 62
1.6 HEALTH HAZARDS DUE TO COAL INDUSTRIES......Page 65
1.6.1 Dust hazards in coal mining......Page 66
1.6.2.2 Fibrogenetic effects......Page 67
1.6.2.5 Monitoring of dusts......Page 68
1.6.5 Chemical hazards......Page 69
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2)......Page 70
1.7 THE WAY AHEAD......Page 71
1.7.1.3 Integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC)......Page 72
1.7.2 Solving the climate problem with current technologies......Page 74
1.8.1 South African coal in the global setting......Page 75
1.8.2 The South Africa energy scene......Page 76
1.8.3 South Africa’s coal resources......Page 78
1.8.4 Coal export industry......Page 80
1.8.5 Infrastructure......Page 81
1.8.6 The value of coal in South African economy......Page 82
1.8.9 Legislation and policy......Page 83
1.8.10 Opportunities for South African coal......Page 84
1.8.10.2 Projected developments in the energy sector......Page 85
1.9.2 China’s energy sector......Page 86
1.9.3 Coal resources of China......Page 87
1.9.4 Coal transport......Page 89
1.9.5 Electricity from coal-fired power stations......Page 90
1.9.7 Environmental impact of the coal industry......Page 93
1.9.8 Coal and climate change......Page 94
CONSOLIDATED LIST OF REFERENCES OF SECTION 1......Page 96
SECTION-II: Energy from oil and natural gas......Page 98
PREAMBLE......Page 99
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 100
2.2.1 Consumption and demand......Page 101
2.2.2 End-use sector......Page 103
2.3.1 Prices and consumption of oil......Page 104
2.3.2 Distribution, reserves and resources of oil......Page 106
2.3.3 Production peak and future demand for oil......Page 108
2.3.3.1 Carbon dioxide emissions from oil usage......Page 116
2.4.1 Prices and consumption......Page 119
2.4.2 Geographic distribution, reserves and resources......Page 125
2.4.3 End-use sector and carbon dioxide emissions......Page 128
2.5 TOWARDS EFFICIENT USAGE OF OIL AND NATURAL GAS IN FUTURE......Page 130
2.6.1 Introduction......Page 131
2.6.2 Distribution, reserves and resources......Page 133
2.6.3 Production, consumption and exports......Page 135
2.6.3.1 Oil......Page 136
2.6.3.2 Natural gas......Page 150
2.6.4.1 End-use sectors......Page 152
2.6.5 Future scenario......Page 153
2.7.1 Introduction......Page 161
2.7.2 Distribution, reserves and resources......Page 162
2.7.3.1 Production......Page 166
2.7.3.2 Exports......Page 171
2.7.4.1 End-use sectors......Page 174
2.7.4.2 Carbon dioxide emissions......Page 176
2.7.5 Future scenario......Page 178
CONSOLIDATED LIST OF REFERENCES OF SECTION 11......Page 181
SECTION-III: Energy from the Atom......Page 183
PREAMBLE......Page 184
3.1.2 Fissile and fertile radioactive isotopes......Page 185
3.1.3.1 Important uranium minerals......Page 186
3.1.3.2 Geochemistry and geologic setting of uranium deposits......Page 187
3.1.4 Thorium resources......Page 191
3.1.5 Three-stage development of nuclear power in India......Page 192
3.2.1 Introduction......Page 193
3.2.2 Mineralogy and geochemistry of uranium mill tailings......Page 195
3.2.2.1 Uranium......Page 196
3.2.2.5 Arsenic......Page 197
3.2.3 Environmental impact of uranium mines and mill tailings......Page 198
3.2.4 Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)......Page 199
3.2.5 Modeling of contaminant impact......Page 200
3.3.1 Nuclear Fuel Cycles......Page 201
3.3.2 Nuclear Fuel Fabrication......Page 203
3.3.3 Radioactivity of Spent Nuclear Fuel......Page 204
3.3.5 Behaviour of SNF in a geologic repository......Page 206
3.3.6 Natural Fission Reactors of Oklo, Gabon, West Africa......Page 209
3.3.7 Neptunium Mobility and its implications for SNF disposal......Page 210
3.4.1 Geological issues relevant to the siting of waste repositories......Page 211
3.4.3 Geochemical considerations in the fabrication of waste glass......Page 213
3.4.4 Long-term stability of nuclear waste glass......Page 214
3.4.5 Glass – water reactions......Page 215
3.4.6 Modeling of alteration mechanisms......Page 216
3.4.7 Immobilization of waste actinides in ceramic......Page 217
3.4.8.2 Zirconolite......Page 219
3.4.8.6 Monazite......Page 220
3.5.1 Radiation from rocks......Page 221
3.5.2 Radon risk......Page 223
3.5.3 Biogeochemical cycling of radioactive pollutants......Page 225
3.5.3.3 Pedosphere......Page 226
3.5.4 Meltdown......Page 227
3.5.5 Chernobyl reactor accident......Page 228
3.5.5.1 131Iodine and Caesium isotopes......Page 229
3.5.5.2 Current concerns in regard to Chernobyl......Page 231
3.6.1 Resource position......Page 233
3.6.2 Cost of nuclear power......Page 235
3.6.3 Projected nuclear power capacity......Page 238
3.6.4 Reactor designs......Page 239
3.6.5 Pebble-bed reactors......Page 240
3.6.6 R&D areas......Page 241
3.7.2 India’s energy resource base......Page 242
3.7.2.1 Demand projections......Page 243
3.7.3.1 India’s three-stage nuclear power programme......Page 244
3.7.3.3 Current status of nuclear power......Page 246
3.7.3.4 Significant achievements in nuclear power technology......Page 247
3.7.4 Future plans – Nuclear reactors planned & capacity buildup......Page 250
3.7.5 Safety management in Indian nuclear power plants......Page 251
3.7.5.1 Security management......Page 253
3.7.6 Merits of nuclear power......Page 254
3.7.7 Techno-economic aspects of production of Nuclear power – investments and tariffs......Page 255
Acknowledgements......Page 256
3.8.2 Present and projected consumption of nuclear energy per capita in relation to the primary energy sources in the energy mix......Page 257
3.8.3 Technologies to improve the production of electricity from uranium, investments (per kWe) and fuel costs (per kWh) of the present and projected nuclear energy......Page 258
3.8.4 Hazards, risks, safety, policy, management, etc. of nuclear industry......Page 259
3.8.5 Health impacts of radiation environment (quality of air, water, soil, etc.) of the projected nuclear energy use......Page 260
CONSOLIDATED REFERENCES FOR SECTION III......Page 261
SECTION-IV: Renewable energy resources......Page 265
PREAMBLE......Page 266
4.1.2.1 “Storage” projects......Page 268
4.1.2.2 Three Gorges project (China): A case study......Page 270
4.1.4 “In-river” small-scale hydropower projects......Page 271
4.1.5 Resources and costs......Page 272
4.2.1 Introduction......Page 273
4.2.3 Research & Development......Page 274
4.2.4 Ocean energy......Page 275
4.3.1 Introduction......Page 276
4.3.3 Technology and cost developments......Page 277
4.3.4 Market overview......Page 278
4.3.6.1 General considerations......Page 279
4.3.6.2 Investment costs......Page 280
4.3.6.3 Further technology development......Page 281
4.4.1 Introduction......Page 282
4.4.2 The Brazilian experience with ethanol......Page 285
4.4.2.1 Carbon emission abatement......Page 288
4.5.2 Photovoltaics......Page 289
4.5.3 PV technology......Page 290
4.5.3.1 Thin films......Page 291
4.5.3.3 R&D needed......Page 293
4.5.4.1 General considerations......Page 294
4.5.4.2 Description of CSP technology......Page 295
4.5.4.3 Costs......Page 296
4.5.4.4 Projected R&D efforts......Page 297
CONSOLIDATED LIST OF REFERENCES OF SECTION 1V......Page 298
SECTION-V: QUO VADIS?......Page 300
PREAMBLE......Page 301
5.1.2 Demographic assumptions......Page 303
5.1.3 Macroeconomic assumptions......Page 304
5.1.4 Per capita GDP, energy use and carbon dioxide emissions......Page 305
5.1.6.1 Decarbonisation of the power sector......Page 306
5.1.6.2 Decarbonisation of the transport sector......Page 307
5.1.8 Research & Development, demonstration and deployment......Page 308
5.1.9 Key roadmaps for sustainable energy future......Page 309
5.2.2 Economics and technological status of carbon dioxide capture and storage......Page 310
5.2.2.1 Capture......Page 311
5.2.3.1 Capacity of the storage......Page 312
Monitoring and verification technology......Page 315
5.2.3.3 Environmental impacts, risks, and risk management......Page 316
5.2.5 Potential hazards to human health and safety......Page 317
5.2.7 Legal issues......Page 318
5.3.2 French scientific tradition regarding nuclear science......Page 319
5.3.3 From 1945 to 1973: “The glorious thirty years”......Page 320
5.3.4 The first generation of nuclear plants......Page 321
5.3.6 From 1974 to 2000: The French “quantitative” nuclear programme......Page 322
5.3.7 A comprehensive systemic approach to nuclear power......Page 325
5.3.9 2001: Enters AREVA......Page 326
CONSOLIDATED REFERENCES FOR SECTION V......Page 327
Main French web sites providing informations on the French nuclear programme or French nuclear industry:......Page 329
Colour plates......Page 330
Appendix......Page 339