Endocrinology and Systemic Diseases

Series Preface
Volume Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
1 Impact of Endocrine Disorders on Typical and Atypical Cardiovascular Risk Factors
	Introduction
	Effects of Glucose Metabolism Disturbances on Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors
	Effects of Prolactin Disturbances on Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors
	Effects of Sexual Hormone Disturbances on Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors
		Androgen Excess in Women and Related Metabolic Consequences
			Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
			Women with Monogenic Causes of Androgen Excess
			Women with Monogenic Insulin Resistance
		Androgen Deficiency in Men and Related Metabolic Consequences
			Primary Male Hypogonadism
			Secondary Male Hypogonadism
			Acquired Male Hypogonadism
		The Role of Androgens in Metabolic Target Tissues
			Androgens, Adipose Tissue, and Lipid Metabolism
		Insulin Resistance, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, and Androgen Status in Men and Women
			Female Androgen Excess and Insulin Resistance
			Male Androgen Deficiency and Insulin Resistance
		Body Composition and Impact of Androgen Status in Men and Women
			Female Androgen Excess on Body Composition
			Male Androgen Deficiency and Body Composition
		Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) and Male and Female Androgen Status
			Female Androgen Excess and NAFLD
			Male Androgen Deficiency and NAFLD
		Cardiovascular Risk and Male and Female Androgen Status
			Female Androgen Excess and Cardiovascular Risk
			Male Androgen Deficiency and Cardiovascular Risk
	Effects of Thyroid Hormone Disturbances on Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors
		Overt and Subclinical Hyperthyroidism
		Overt and Subclinical Hypothyroidism
		Thyroid Hormones and Cardiovascular Risk Factors
			Hyperlipidemia
			Insulin Resistance
			Blood Pressure and Vascular Function
			Thrombosis
	Effects of Growth Hormone Disturbances on Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors
		Growth Hormone Excess
		Growth Hormone Deficiency
	Effects of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone and Cortisol Disturbances on Cardiovascular Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascul...
	Effects of Aldosterone Disturbances on Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors
		Aldosterone and Insulin Resistance
		Aldosterone and Endothelial Function
		Aldosterone and Hypertension
		Aldosterone and Cardiac Structure
		Aldosterone and Congestive Heart Failure
			Pheochromocytoma
	Effects of Parathyroid Hormone Disturbances on Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors
		Hyperparathyroidism
			Hyperparathyroidism and Hypertension
			Hyperparathyroidism Glucose Metabolism
			Hyperparathyroidism and Atherosclerosis
		Hypoparathyroidism
	Effects of Intestinal Dysbacteriosis on Traditional and Nontraditional Cardiovascular Risk Factors
		Gut Microbiota Disturbances and Hyperlipidemia
		Gut Microbiota Disturbances and Obesity
		Gut Microbiota Disturbances and Atherosclerosis
		Gut Microbiota Disturbances and Cardiovascular Disease
	Summary
	Cross-References
	References
2 Impact of Endocrine Disorders on Blood Pressure
	Introduction
	Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome
		The Crosstalk Between Diabetes and Hypertension
		Pathophysiological Interactions Between Diabetes and Hypertension
		The Effect of Antidiabetic Drugs in Hypertension
	Thyroid
		Hyperthyroidism
		Hypothyroidism
	Mineralocorticoids and Glucocorticoids
		Mineralocorticoid and BP Physiology
		Hypertensive Disorders
			Primary Aldosteronism
			CS
			CAH
			Liddle´s Syndrome (or Pseudohyperaldosteronism)
			AME
			Geller´s Syndrome
		Mineralocorticoid Hypotension
			Chronic Primary Adrenal Insufficiency (PAI)
			Acute Adrenal Insufficiency
			Selective Hypoaldosteronism
			Pseudohypoaldosteronism (PHA)
	GH and IGF-1
		GH Excess (Acromegaly)
		GH Deficiency (GHD)
	Hyperparathyroidism and Vitamin D Deficiency
		Interactions Between Ca2+/Phosphate Homeostasis and Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
		Hyperparathyroidism and BP
		Vitamin D and BP
	Sexual Hormones
		Estrogen
		Testosterone
	Summary
	References
3 Impact of Endocrine Disorders on the Heart
	Introduction
	The Pituitary Gland and Cardiovascular Disease
		Prolactin
		Peripartum Cardiomyopathy (PPCM)
		Growth Hormone
		Follicle-Stimulating Hormone-Luteinizing Hormone (FSH-LH) and Testosterone
		Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)-Cortisol
	Thyroid Hormone-Mediated Cardiac Disease
		Thyroid Hormone-Related Coronary Artery Disease
		Hyperthyroidism
		Hypothyroidism
		Amiodarone-Induced Thyroid Disease
	Parathyroid Hormone-Related Cardiovascular Disease
		Hyperparathyroidism, Vitamin D, and Calcium Homeostasis
		Hypoparathyroidism
	Carcinoid Heart Disease (Hart et al. 2017)
		Neuroendocrine Tumors (NETs)
			Carcinoid Heart Disease
			Surgical Intervention
	Diabetes and Heart Disease
		Introduction
		Classification of DM
		DM and Cardiovascular Disease
		Functional and Structural Alterations
		Diabetic Cardiomyopathy
		Cardiovascular Risk Assessment
		Prevention and Management of Cardiovascular Disease
		Revascularization
		Arrhythmia
		Heart Failure
		Conclusion
	Pheochromocytoma-Related Cardiovascular Disease
	Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection
	Broken Heart Syndrome
	Summary
	Cross-References
	References
4 Impact of Endocrine Disorders on Vasculature
	Introduction
	Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome
		The Effect of Hyperglycemia on Vascular Physiology and Pathophysiology
		The Effect of Insulin Imbalance on Vascular Physiology and Pathophysiology
	Thyroid
		Direct Effects of Hypothyroidism on Endothelial Dysfunction
		Indirect Effects of Hypothyroidism on Endothelial Dysfunction
		The Role of Hyperthyroidism on Vascular Function
	Mineralocorticoids
		Aldosterone Effects on Endothelial Dysfunction, Vascular Remodeling, and Stiffening
		Effects of Aldosterone in Atherosclerotic Plaque Progression
			Clinical Evidences
	Glucocorticoids (GCs)
		Clinical Evidences
	Growth Hormone (GH) and Insulin-Like Growth Factor (IGF)-1
		GH Excess (Acromegaly)
		GH Deficiency (GHD)
	Hyperparathyroidism and Vitamin D Deficiency
		PTH and Vascular Homeostasis
		The Vitamin D System in Vascular Biology
		Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF) 23/Klotho Axis: A New Player
	Sexual Hormones
		Estrogens
		Testosterone
	Conclusions
	References
5 Impact of Endocrine Disorders on the Kidney
	Introduction
	Diabetes
		Epidemiology
		Pathogenesis
		Clinical Features
		Histological Findings
		Therapeutic Approach
			Glycemic Control
			Blood Pressure Control
	Obesity
	Parathyroids
	Thyroid
	Adrenal Glands
		Medulla Adrenal Disease
	Pituitary Gland
		Diabetes Insipidus
		Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion (SIADH)
	Sexual Hormones
		Male
		Female
	Summary
		Diabetes
		Obesity
		Parathyroids
		Thyroid Hormones
		Adrenal Glands
			Medulla Adrenal Disease
		Pituitary Gland
			Diabetes Insipidus
			Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion (SIADH)
		Sexual Hormones
	Cross-References
	References
6 Impact of Endocrine Disorders on the Liver
	Introduction
	Liver and Thyroid Diseases
	Adrenal Glands and the Liver
		Adrenal Insufficiency
		Adrenal Excess
		Hyperaldosteronism
		Adrenal Catecholamines
	Pituitary Hormones and the Liver
	Sex Hormones and the Liver
		Estrogens
		Androgens
		Gonadal Dysfunction in Liver Diseases
		Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
	Summary
	Cross-References
	References
7 Impact of Endocrine Disorders on Gastrointestinal Diseases
	Introduction
	Obesity
		Esophagus
		Stomach
		Small Intestine
		Colon and Rectum
		Liver
		Gallbladder
		Pancreas
	Diabetes
		Esophagus
		Stomach
		Lower Gastrointestinal Tract
		Liver
		Gallbladder
	Adrenal Insufficiency
	Acromegaly
	Thyroid Disorders
		Hyperthyroidism
		Hypothyroidism
	Endocrine Tumors
		Pancreatic Neuroendocrine (Islet-Cell) Tumors
		Carcinoid Tumors
		Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN)
		von Hippel-Lindau Disease
	Emerging Fields
		Gut Microbiota
	Bile Acids as Signaling Molecules with Systemic Effects
	Summary and Future Trends
	References
8 Impact of Endocrine Disorders on Autoimmune Diseases
	Introduction
	Thyroid Disease
		Rheumatological Manifestations of Thyroid Diseases
		The Association of Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases with Other Rheumatic Diseases
		Thyroid Disease and RA
	Autoimmune Thyroid Disease and SLE
	Autoimmune Thyroid Disease and Sjögren Syndrome
	Diabetes
	Shoulder and Hand Syndromes
	Diabetes and RA
		The Impact of Treatment of RA on Insulin Resistance
	Diabetes and SLE
	Disorders of the Hypothalamic-Hypopituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis
		Adrenal Disorders
	Acromegaly and Gigantism
	Diabetes Prolactin
		Hyperprolactinemia and Autoimmunity
	Prolactin and SLE
	Prolactin and RA
	Prolactin and Sjögren Syndrome
	Parathyroid Disorders
		Hypoparathyroidism
		Hyperparathyroidism
		Parathyroid Disorders and Rheumatic Diseases
	Summary
	References
9 Neuroendocrine Involvement in Immune-Mediated Rheumatic Diseases
	Introduction
	Hormones and Immune System Interactions
	Nervous System and Immune System Interactions
	Clinical Conditions in Which Alterations of Neuroendocrine System Was Recognized
		Rheumatoid Arthritis
		Polymyalgia Rheumatica/Giant Cell Arteritis
		Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
		Sjögren Syndrome
		A Final Note on the Adipose Tissue and Adipokines
	Conclusion
	References
10 Neurological Manifestations of Endocrine Disorders
	Introduction
	The Endocrine System
	Neurological Manifestations of Different Endocrine Disorders
		Pituitary Disorders
			Anatomy and Physiology
			Types of Pituitary Lesions
			Neurological Manifestations of Pituitary Lesions
			Neurological Symptoms Associated with Dysfunction of Direct-Acting Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland
				Growth Hormone (GH)
				Prolactin (PRL)
				Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone)
			Diagnosis and Treatment
		Thyroid Disorders
			Anatomy and Physiology
			Types of Lesion
			Neurological Manifestations of Thyroid Disorders
			Hypothyroidism
				Encephalopathy
				Cognitive Impairment
				Peripheral Neuropathy
				Myopathy
				Other Manifestations of Hypothyroidism
			Hyperthyroidism
				Cognitive Impairment and Psychiatric Symptoms
				Peripheral Neuropathy
				Muscle Involvement
				Tremor and Other Abnormal Movements
				Ophthalmopathy
				Other Manifestations of Hyperthyroidism
			Hashimoto Encephalopathy
		Adrenal Disorders
			Anatomy and Physiology
			Types of Lesion
			Neurological Manifestations of Adrenal Disorders
				Cushing´s Syndrome
				Pheochromocytoma
				Adrenal Insufficiency
				Adrenoleukodystrophy (Adrenoleukodystrophy-Adrenomyeloneuropathy Complex)
		Mineral Metabolism and Parathyroid Disorders
			Anatomy and Physiology
			Types of Lesion
			Neurological Manifestations of Parathyroid Disorders
				Hyperparathyroidism
				Fahr Syndrome
				Hypocalcemia
			Diagnosis and Treatment
		Gonadal Disorders
			Anatomy and Physiology
			Types of Lesion
			Neurological Manifestations of Gonadal Disorders
				Estrogen Deficiency During Menopause
				Testosterone Deficiency in Elderly Patients
				Paraneoplastic Neurological Symptoms Associated with Gonadal Tumors
				Fragile X Syndrome
				Kennedy Disease
				Pituitary and Hypothalamic Disorders
		Obesity
			Neurological Manifestations of Obesity
				Migraine
				Cognitive Impairment
				Polyneuropathy
		Diabetes Mellitus
			Neurological Manifestations of Diabetes Mellitus
				Stroke
				Cognitive Impairment
				Diabetic Neuropathy
					Symmetric Distal Sensory or Sensorimotor Polyneuropathy
					Small-Fiber Polyneuropathy
					Autonomic Neuropathy
					Focal Neuropathies
					Diabetic Amyotrophy
	Summary
	Cross-References
	References
11 Endocrine Disorders and Psychiatric Manifestations
	Introduction
	General Mechanisms That Link Psychiatric Manifestations and Endocrine Disorders
	General Psychiatric Manifestations of Endocrine Diseases
	Pituitary Disorders
		Hypopituitarism
		Cushing´s Disease
		Acromegaly
		Hyperprolactinemia
	Gonadal Disorders
		Male Hypogonadism
		Female Hypogonadism
		Precocious Puberty
	Adrenal Disorders
		Addison´s Disease
		Primary Aldosteronism
		Pheochromocytoma and Paraganglioma
		Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
	Thyroid Disorders
		Hypothyroidism
			Subclinical Hypothyroidism
		Hyperthyroidism
			Subclinical Hyperthyroidism
		Autoimmune Thyroiditis and Hashimoto´s Encephalopathy
		Thyroid Cancer
	Parathyroid Disorders
		Primary Hyperparathyroidism
		Primary Hypoparathyroidism
	Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
	Diabetes Mellitus
	Obesity
		Effects of Bariatric Surgery
	Hormonal Treatment and Psychiatric Disease
	Psychiatric Diseases Inducing Endocrine Pathology
	Summary
	Cross-References
	References
12 Impact of Endocrine Disorders in Critically Ill Patients
	Introduction
	Dysglycemia in Critically Illness
		General Concepts and Assessment
		Pathogenetic Mechanisms and Consequences
		Dysglycemia in Different Critically Ill Patients
	Low-T3 Syndrome or Non-thyroidal Illness Syndrome
		General Concepts and Assessment
		Primary Hypothyroidism in Critically Illness
		LowT3S Management and Therapy
	References
13 Impact of Endocrine Disorders in the Elderly
	Introduction
	Hypofiso-Gonadal Function
		Women
			Symptoms of Menopause
			Hot Flashes or Vasomotor Symptoms
			Vaginal Dryness
			Depression
			Sleep Disturbance
			Neurocognitive Changes
			Osteoporosis
			Body Composition
			Cardiovascular Disease
			Estrogen Replacement Therapy
		Men
			Change in Gonadotropins
			Serum Testosterone, Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin
			Clinical Consequences of Testosterone Decline
			Bone Mineral Density and Fractures
			Cardiovascular Disease and Body Composition
			Neuropsychiatric Functions
			Decline in Spermatogenesis
			Testosterone Replacement Therapy
	Other Hypothalamic-Neuro/Adeno-hypofisary Axis
		GH/IGF-1
		Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
		Vasopressin/Antidiuretic Hormone
	Thyroid Function
	Adrenal Cortex
		Cortisol
		Dehydroepiandrosterone
		Aldosterone
	Adipose Tissue and Skeletal Muscle
		Sarcopenia
		Adipose Tissue Depot
			Overnutrition
			Undernutrition
		Management of Sarcopenia and Dysfunctional Changes in Body Adiposity
			Physical Activity
			Healthy Diet
				Overnutrition
				Undernutrition
	Hormone-Dependent Calcium Balance
		Calcium Balance
		Vitamin D
		Parathyroid Hormone
		Impact of Hormonal Disorders in Persons Aged Above 75 Years
	Summary
	Cross-References
	References
14 Impact of Endocrine Disorders on Skin Disorders
	Introduction
	Pituitary Gland
		Hypopituitarism
		Hyperpituitarism
		Acromegaly
		McCune-Albright Syndrome
		Hyperprolactinemia
		Prolactinoma
	Thyroid Gland
		Congenital Hypothyroidism
		Hypothyroidism
		Hyperthyroidism
		Graves´ Disease
	Parathyroid Gland
		Hypoparathyroidism
		Hyperparathyroidism
	Adrenal Glands
		Hyperadrenalism
		Cushing´s Syndrome
		Pseudo-Cushing´s Disease
		Addison´s Disease
		Pheochromocytoma
		Hypogonadism
		Excessive Androgen Production
		Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS)
	Pancreas
		Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
			Necrobiosis Lipoidica Diabeticorum
			Granuloma Annulare
			Diabetic Bullae
			Scleredema Diabeticorum
			Cutaneous Infections
			The Diabetic Foot
			Acanthosis Nigricans
			Diabetic Dermopathy
			Acquired Perforating Dermatoses
			Eruptive Xanthomatosis
			Vitiligo
			Acrochordons (Skin Tags)
			Yellow Skin and Nails
			Generalized Pruritus
			Ichthyosiform Skin
			Lichen Planus
			Rubeosis Faciei
			Palmar Erythema
			Nail Bed Erythema
			Pigmented Purpura
	Cutaneous Reactions to Diabetic Treatment
		Adverse Skin Reactions to Insulin
		Oral Hypoglycemic Agents
	Polyendocrine Disorders
		Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN) Syndromes
		Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndromes
	Genetic Syndromes
		Carney Complex
		21-Hydroxylase Deficiency
	Neuroendocrine Tumors
		Glucagonoma Syndrome
		Carcinoid Syndrome
		Merkel Cell Carcinoma
	Summary
	References
15 The Role of Environmental Pollution in Endocrine Diseases
	Introduction
	Insulin Resistance, Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes
		Type 1 Diabetes
	Thyroid Diseases
	Reproductive Abnormalities
	Endocrine Disruptors and Cancer
	Endocrine Effects of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields
	Summary and Future Trends
	References
Index