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دانلود کتاب Encyclopedia of solid earth geophysics
دانلود کتاب دایره المعارف ژئوفیزیک زمین جامد
مشخصات کتاب
Encyclopedia of solid earth geophysics
ویرایش: [2 ed.]
نویسندگان: Harsh K. Gupta (editor)
سری: Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
ISBN (شابک) : 9783030586300, 3030586308
ناشر: Springer Nature
سال نشر: 2021
تعداد صفحات: [1976]
زبان: English
فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود)
حجم فایل: 144 Mb
قیمت کتاب (تومان) : 38,000
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Contents About the Editor Contributors Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgments A Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric Definition Introduction Radioactivity and the Systematics of Its Use as a Chronometer The Application of Radiometric Dating Summary and Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Anthropogenic Seismicity Related to Exploitation of Georesources Definition Overview Mechanisms of Interaction Between Technological Activity and the Rock Mass Induced, Triggered, or Natural Specific Features Collaborative Undertakings for Research into Anthropogenic Seismicity Summary Bibliography Archaeomagnetism Synonyms Definition Basic Features Archaeological Site Sampling Directional Analyses Paleo-intensity Analyses Magnetic Dating Based on the Direction of Remanence Relative Dating Chronological Dating Magnetic Polarity and Polarity Excursion Dating Magnetic Dating Based on the Intensity of Remanence Errors General Errors Errors Specific to Directional Dating Errors Specific to Intensity Dating Overall Error Assessment Specialized Applications Murals and Plaster Object Reconstruction Archaeological Sediments Magnetic ``Sourcing´´ Summary Cross-References Bibliography Artificial Water Reservoir-Triggered Earthquakes, with Special Emphasis on Koyna, India Definition and Introduction Triggered vis-à-vis Induced Earthquakes Artificial Water Reservoir-Triggered Earthquakes Reservoir-Triggered Seismicity (RTS): Global Distribution Important Factors for RTS Common Characteristics of RTS Sequences Mechanism of Triggered Earthquakes Koyna, India How Long Triggered Earthquakes Will Continue at Koyna? Short-Term Earthquake Forecast at Koyna Near-Source Studies at Koyna Pilot Borehole Location Summary Cross-References Bibliography B Biogeophysics Definition Introduction Geophysical Detection of Cells and Biofilms Geophysical Detection of Metabolic By-Products and Mineral Weathering Geophysical Detection of Microbially Mediated Redox Processes Geophysical Detection of Microbe-Mineral Transformations Summary Cross-References Bibliography Body Waves Synonyms Definition Types of Body Waves Wave Propagation Waves on a Seismogram Refraction Reflection Velocity Velocity of P- and S-waves P-waves S-waves Attenuation Summary: Results of Regional and Global Studies Body-Wave Modeling Cross-References Bibliography Borehole Seismic Networks and Arrays Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Developments Current Instrumentation and Installation Noise-Suppression and Signal-Detection Advantages Networks Versus Arrays Illustrative Examples Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography C Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps Definition Introduction History Assumptions Small Characteristic Earthquakes Modified Seismic Gap Hypothesis Challenges to the Seismic Gap Model Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Continental Crustal Structure Definition Introduction Methods Cratons Orogens Extensional Areas Constraints on Crustal Petrology Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Continental Drift Definition Introduction Alfred Wegener Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Continental Rifts Synonyms Definition Introduction Rift, Graben, and Taphrogen General Properties of Rifts Structure of Rifts Sedimentation in Rifts Magmatism in Rifts Metamorphism in Rifts Kinds of Rifts Geometric Classification of Rifts (See Figs. 7 and 8) Kinematic Classification of Rifts (See Fig. 8) Dynamic (Genetic) Classification of Rifts (See Fig. 6) Concluding Note Bibliography Core Dynamo Synonyms Definition Introduction Dynamo Model Concept and Equations Model Setup Dynamo Equations Parameters Energetics of the Geodynamo Flow Pattern and Dynamo Mechanism Flow Outside Tangent Cylinder Flow Inside Tangent Cylinder Field Properties Field Strength Inside the Core Scaling Laws Magnetic Field Geometry Secular Variation Time Scales Advection vs. Diffusion of Field Magnetic Field Reversals Summary Cross-References Bibliography Core-Mantle Coupling Definition, Scope, and Aims The Four Coupling Processes The Viscous Torque The Topographic Torque The Gravitational Torque The Magnetic Torque Synthesis Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Chamber Synonyms Definition Introduction Methods Crustal Structure at Fast Spreading Centers Plot Triplication Axial Magma Chamber (Melt Lens) Lower Crust Oceanic Moho Crustal Thickness Upper Mantle Faults in the Oceanic Crust and Upper Mantle Summary Cross-References Bibliography Curie Temperature Synonyms Definition Magnetic Minerals and Curie Temperature Geomagnetic Implications Cross-References Bibliography D Deep Scientific Drilling Definition Introduction Goals of Scientific Drilling Drilling, Sampling, and Monitoring Techniques Dynamics of Continental Crust Volcanic Systems Mid-ocean Ridge Magmatism Active Volcano Drilling and Subduction-Induced Volcanism Mantle Plume Volcanism Impact Craters Active Fault Zones Nojima Fault Projects, Japan SAFOD, California Taiwan Chelungpu Drilling Project, Taiwan Wenchuan Earthquake Fault Scientific Drilling Project (WFSD), Sichuan, China Geophysical Observatory in the Eastern Sea of Marmara, GONAF Deep Scientific Drilling to Study Reservoir-Triggered Earthquakes in Koyna, India Subduction Zone Fault Drilling at Sea Japan Trench Fast Drilling Project (JFAST) Unconventional Resources: Geoenergy The Iceland Deep Drilling Project, IDDP Summary Cross-References Bibliography Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling Synonyms Definition Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling Notational Notes Introduction Basic Principles Data Acquisition Field Layouts Special Processing and Interpretation Tools Main Results Some Recent Developments Research Problems Summary Cross-References Bibliography Differential Rotation of the Earth´s Inner Core Definition Background Seismological Observations Concluding Remarks Cross-References Bibliography E Earth Rotation Definition Introduction Mathematical Formulation of Earth Rotation Definition and Observation of Earth Orientation Parameters IERS International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earth Tides Definition The Tidal Force The Earth´s Response Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earth, Density Distribution Definition The Mean Density The Moment of Inertia Constraint Self-Compression Free Oscillation Data A Density Gradient Anomaly Extrapolation to Zero Pressure and Inferences About Composition Lateral Density Variations Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earth´s Structure, Core Definition Overall Structure Radial and Lateral Variations Irregular Surface Mushy Zone at the Top Temporal Changes Possible Physical Mechanisms Cross-References Bibliography Earth´s Structure, Global Definition Introduction 1D Structure of the Earth Characterizing the Interior of the Earth with Earthquake Waves From 1D Models to 3D Tomographic Models Mantle Convection Jigsaw Seismic 3D Tomography: The Earth Scanner An Anisotropic and Anelastic Earth Outlook: New Challenges Cross-References Bibliography Further Reading Earth´s Structure, Lower Mantle Synonyms Definition Introduction Tools for Studying the Lower Mantle Three-Dimensional Structure and Dynamics Future Progress Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earth´s Structure, Upper Mantle Definition Tomographic Techniques Global Models Regional Models Outlook Cross-References Bibliography Earthquake Lights Synonyms Definition Classification of Earthquake Lights Examples of EQL Example of Type 3 EQL Source of EQL and Associated Electromagnetic (EM) Phenomena Conclusion Cross-References Bibliography Earthquake Precursors and Prediction Definitions and Introduction History Nonmechanical Short-Term Precursors Difficulties Inherent to Short-Term Precursors Macro-anomalies Geochemical/Hydrological Precursors Satellite IR Images as Possible Surface Temperature Electric, Magnetic, and EM Precursors Telluric Current Precursors: The VAN Method Ultralow Frequency (ULF) Precursors Higher-Frequency EM Emission Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Coupling Possible Mechanism of Pre-seismic EM Emissions Critical Phenomena Summary and Future Outlook Cross-References Bibliography Earthquake Prediction, M8 Algorithm Definition Introduction The M8 Algorithm The MSc Algorithm Targeting Mega-earthquakes Conclusion Cross-References Bibliography Earthquake Rupture: The Inverse Problem Definition Introduction Definition of Some Common Terms Used in Inverse Theory The Method Constraints from Laboratory Experiments Discussion of Results of Inversion Super-Shear Wave Rupture Speeds Earthquake Rupture Complexity Large Earthquakes on Transform Faults Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earthquake Sounds Definition Introduction Records of Sounds How Are Sounds Produced? Applications of Sounds Infrasound Sonification, Education, and Art Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Earthquake Source Theory Definition Introduction Point Source Models Finite Source Models Kinematic Models Dynamical Fault Models Future Work Bibliography Earthquake, Aftershocks Definition Introduction Scaling Laws for Aftershocks Causes of Aftershocks Aftershocks and Earthquake Hazard Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earthquake, Archaeoseismology Synonyms Definition Introduction Archaeoseismic Observations Methods Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earthquake, Focal Mechanism Definition Representation by a Double-Couple Focal Mechanisms from P-Wave First Motions Stress Release Fundamental Results Modern Focal Solutions: Inversion of the Moment Tensor Evaluation Tools for Double-Couple Solutions Non-double-Couple Solutions Conclusion Cross-References Bibliography Earthquake, Foreshocks Synonyms Definition Introduction Characteristics of Foreshocks Causes of Foreshocks Can Foreshocks Be Used to Predict Earthquakes? Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earthquake, Magnitude Synonyms Definition Original Definition of Earthquake Magnitude Local Magnitude Scales Teleseismic Magnitude Scales Surface-Wave Magnitudes Body-Wave Magnitudes Relationships Between Magnitude Scales and Released Seismic Energy Es Magnitude ``Saturation´´ Non-Saturating Magnitude Scales Relationship Between Mw, Me, and Classical Magnitudes Summary and Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes and Crustal Deformation Definition Types of Earthquakes and Related Phenomena Defined Elastic Rebound Theory Pre-seismic Crustal Deformation Co-seismic Crustal Deformation Post-seismic Crustal Deformation Observational Advances and New Discoveries Perspectives Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes in the Himalaya Definition Introduction Geodynamic Models of Himalaya-Tibetan Orogenic System Crustal Deformation and Strain Buildup Along Himalayan Arc Mid-Crustal Seismicity and Associated Seismic Swarm Along Main Himalayan Thrust Factors Influencing Himalayan Earthquakes Role of Subducted Ridge Stress Triggering Process Non-tectonic Deformation Human-Induced Deformation Future Directions: Key Questions to Be Answered Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes on Oceanic Transform Faults, Unexpectedly Large Definition Introduction Rupture on Conjugate Faults in an Oceanic Setting Rupture on a Fault Normal to the Preexisting Zones of Weakness Simultaneous Earthquake Rupture on Conjugate Faults in an Oceanic Setting A Great Earthquake on a Fossil Fracture Zone Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, Did You Feel It? Definition and Introduction Historical Context The DYFI System Citizen Science Seismology Outlook Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion Warning Synopsis Introduction Uses of Early Warning Approaches to Early Warning Implementations of Early Warning Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, Energy Definition and Calculation Summary and Outlook Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, Intensity Synonyms Definition Macroseismic Scales and Intensity Assignment Nature of Sensors History of Intensity Scales Conversion of Intensity Scales Macroseismic Surveys Intensity Attenuation with Distance Conversion of Intensities to Magnitudes Relation of Intensities to Recorded Strong Ground Motion Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, Intraplate Synonyms Definition Mechanism of Intraplate Earthquakes Summary and Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, Location Techniques Synonyms Definition Introduction Early History Single-Event Location Location Uncertainty Multiple-Event Location Waveform Cross-Correlation Relative Location Time Reversal and Migration Location Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, PAGER Definition and Introduction The PAGER Process The PAGER Earthquake Impact Scale Ongoing PAGER Developments Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, ShakeCast Definition Background ShakeCast System Overview Outlook Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, ShakeMap Definition and Introduction Historical Context Related Systems and Uses Summary Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, Strong-Ground Motion Definition Introduction Description of Strong-Ground Motion Earthquake Source Effects on Strong-Ground Motion: Near-Field Effects Wave-Propagation Effects Strong-Ground Motion Modeling Strong-Motion Simulation: An Example Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Earthquakes, Volcanogenic Definition Volcano Seismology Introduction Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes Rock-Fall and Lahar Events Low-Frequency Earthquakes Volcanic Tremor Very-Long-Period Earthquakes Volcano Seismology in a Wider Volcanological Context Estimation of Magma Ascent Rate Combining Seismicity with Infrasonic Signals Detection of Lahars and Pyroclastic Flows Detecting Stress Changes in Volcanic Settings Summary and Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Electrical Properties of Rocks Definition Introduction Definition of Electrical Conductivity (Resistivity) Electrical Conduction Electrical Conductivity of Liquid-Bearing Rocks Electrical Conductivity of Crust Electrical Conductivity of the Earth´s Mantle Origin of High Conductive Anomalies in the Mantle Oceanic Asthenosphere Mantle Transition Zone The Base of the Lower Mantle Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Interpretation Synonyms Definition Introduction Traditional Profiling and Sounding Surveys Two-Dimensional Resistivity Imaging Surveys Three-Dimensional Resistivity Imaging Surveys 4-D Time-Lapse Surveys Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Electromagnetic Methods, Imaging Magma Bodies Definition: Essential Concepts Observations Interpretation Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Electromagnetic Pulsations and Magnetic Storms Definition Electromagnetic Pulsations Classification of Magnetic Pulsations Generation Mechanisms of Magnetic Pulsations Substorms and Magnetic Storms Relationship Between Magnetic Pulsations and Substorms and Magnetic Storms Magnetic Storms and Society Future Outlook Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Electronic Geophysical Year Definition Introduction and Concept History Scope Operations Achievements Summary Cross-References Bibliography Energy Budget of the Earth Definition Total Heat Loss of the Earth Continental Heat Flow Oceanic Heat Flow Young Sea Floor Old Sea Floor Bathymetry Age Distribution of the Sea Floor Hot Spots Energy Budget of the Mantle Radiogenic Heat Production Heat Flux From the Core Secular Cooling Present and Long Term Cooling Rates Perspectives Summary Cross-References Bibliography Energy Partitioning of Seismic Waves Synonyms Definition Summary Acknowledgments Bibliography Equatorial Electrojet Definition Cause Characteristics of the EEJ Uses of EEJ Observations Cross-References Bibliography F Fault Zone Guided Waves Synonyms Definition A Short and Recent History of Fault Zone Guided Wave Seismology and Controversies Types of Fault Zone Guided Waves and Their Particle Motions The Effects of Fault Geometry, Velocity Structure, Anisotropy, and Heterogeneity Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Fiber Optic Distributed Strain Sensing for Seismic Applications Definition Introduction Optical Fibers Cable Coupling Determination of Strain Changes Along Optical Fiber DAS Versus Conventional Seismic Sensing Localization of the Sensor Position Selected Case Studies Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgments Bibliography Fiber-Optic Sensing in Geophysics, Temperature Measurements Definition Introduction Optical Fibers Sensor Configurations, Sensing Methods Point Sensors, Sensor Arrays Distributed Sensing Interrogation Techniques DTS Based on Raman Scattering Implementation Temperature Accuracy and Resolution Hydrogen Darkening Sensor Cables, Deployment Methods Permanent Installation Temporary/Retrievable Installation Applications, Methods of Evaluation Passive Monitoring Formation Temperatures, Heat Flow Studies Flow Profiling Well Cementing and Well Treatments High-Temperature Applications Active Methods Fluid Logging, Thermal Tracer/Dilution Techniques Heat-Pulse Method Other Applications in Related Disciplines Summary Cross-References Bibliography Floating Seismographs (MERMAIDS) Definition History Technical Description Signal Discrimination A Typical Mission Other Sensors Multi-MERMAID Recent Results Summary Cross-References Bibliography Fractal Scaling of Earthquakes Synonyms Definition Introduction Scaling of Earthquake Sources Scaling of Distribution in Slip Roughness Unified Scaling Law Statistical Treatment of Fractal Heterogeneities in Earth Seismic Attenuation in Fractal Media Summary and Outlook Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibilography Fractals and Chaos Synonyms Definition Introduction Basic Concepts Power Law (Scaling Behavior) Fractional Brownian Motion (fBm) Fractional Gaussian Noise (fGn) Fractal Signal Analysis Analyzing Geophysical Time Series Fractal Behavior of Various Physical Properties Fractals in Seismology Fractal Porous Media Chaos Summary Bibliography Free Oscillations of the Earth Definition Introduction Toroidal Oscillations of a Uniform Elastic Sphere Spheroidal Oscillations of a Uniform Elastic Sphere Oscillations of an SNREI Earth Model Effect of the Rotation of the Earth Jeans´ Formula Continuous Free Oscillations of the Earth Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography G Geodesy, Figure of the Earth Definition Background Mathematical Figures of the Earth Reference Coordinate System Datum Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geodesy, Ground Positioning, and Levelling Definition Introduction Ground Positioning Levelling Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geodesy, Networks, and Reference Systems Definition Introduction Geodetic Reference Systems Theory of Reference Systems Metrology Global Geodetic Reference Systems International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) Continental Reference Systems National Geodetic Reference Systems Historical Reference Systems Global Geodesy International Services Fundamental Station for Geodesy Instrumentation of a Fundamental Station Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geodesy, Physical Definition Historical Development of Geodesy Gravity Field of the Earth Properties of the Gravitational Potential Disturbing Potential Geoid and Reference Ellipsoid Methods of In Situ Measurements Satellite Geodesy Determining the Geoid Gravity Reduction Gravity Models Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal Ultra Broad Band Synonyms Definition Instrument Description Grotta Gigante Horizontal Pendulums Summary Cross-References Bibliography Links to Geodynamic Observatories with Active Tiltmeters Geodynamics Definition Cross-References Bibliography Geoelectromagnetism Definitions and Scope Introduction Magnetovariational Sounding (MVS) and Magnetovariational Profiling (MVP) Deep Mantle MVS Studies Magnetovariational Profiling Array Transfer Function Magnetotelluric Soundings Basic Formulas Interpretation Application to Geosciences and Future Directions Cross-References Bibliography Geoid Synonyms Definition Introduction Geoid and Heights Geoid Modeling from Gravity Data Measuring Height of the Everest Geoid Anomaly and Tectonics GRACE and Coseismic Deformation Tectonic Forces Bibliography Geoid Determination, Computational Methods Definition Introduction The Remove-Compute-Restore Technique Computation of the GM-Contributions Computation of the Δg-Contribution Computation of the Terrain Contributions Evaluation of Satellite Altimetry Contributions Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geoid Determination, Theory and Principles Definition Basic Principles: the Gravity, Normal, and Disturbing Potentials The Stokes and Molodensky Geodetic BVPs Analytical Solutions to the Geodetic BVPs The Operational Solution to the Geodetic BVPs The Treatment of the Topography The Oceanic Geoid and Gravity from Satellite Altimetry Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geoid Undulation, Interpretation Synonyms Definition Introduction Direct Problem Inverse Problem Truncated Geoid Some Other Applications Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geomagnetic Excursions Synonyms Definition Geographical and Temporal Extent Field Configuration During Excursions Origin Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geomagnetic Field, Global Pattern Definition Introduction Observations Spherical Harmonic Analysis Maps of the Geomagnetic Field Recent Changes in the Geomagnetic Field Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geomagnetic Field, IGRF Definition Datasets Basic Mathematical Expression IGRF Evolving Summary or Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Geomagnetic Field, Measurement Techniques Introduction Earth´s Surface Magnetic Field Measurements General Observatory Setting Absolute Calibration of a Vector Magnetometers Near-Earth Magnetic Field Measurements Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geomagnetic Field, Polarity Reversals Introduction: The Discovery of Geomagnetic Reversals The Geomagnetic Polarity Timescale The Changing Frequency over Time and the Duration of Geomagnetic Reversals The Morphology of Geomagnetic Reversals Dynamo Mechanisms and Reversals Outlook: The Future of Geomagnetic Reversals Acknowledgments Bibliography Geomagnetic Field, Secular Variation Definition Cross-References Bibliography Geomagnetic Field, Theory Definition Introduction Kinematic Dynamo Theory Energetics of the Geodynamo Magnetohydrodynamic Theory of the Geodynamo Time Dependence of the Geodynamo Outlook Cross-References Bibliography Geomagnetically Induced Currents Definition Introduction Space Weather Events and Geomagnetically Induced Currents Generation of GIC Events Future Outlook Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Geophysical Well Logging Synonyms Definition Introduction Wellbore Environment Calibration and Standardization of Logs Benefits and Limitations of Logging Principles Instrumentation Fundamentals of Log Analysis Cross Plots Applications of Geophysical Well Logging In the Oil Industry Indirect-Imaging Technologies: Acoustic and Electrical Hydrogeologic Applications Mineral Exploration Civil Engineering, Rock Mechanics, and Environmental Preservation Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geothermal Heat Pumps Definition The Resource Geothermal Heat Pump (GHP) Technology Heating and Cooling with GHPs Design, Costs Licensing, Environmental Benefits Applications, Development Trends Summary Cross-References Bibliography Geothermal Record of Climate Change Definition Introduction The Geothermal Method of Temperature Reconstruction Tutorial A Global Geothermal Climate Change Database Temperature-Depth Profiles Repeat Temperature Logs Temperature Reconstruction Analysis Summary Cross-References Bibliography GPS, Data Acquisition, and Analysis Definition Other Satellite-Based Navigation Systems Satellite Positioning Point Positioning Relative Positioning System Description Introduction Satellites, Signals, and System Time GPS Ground Instrumentation Antenna Receiver Measurements Code Pseudo-range Model Carrier Phase Model Remarks Single and Double Differences Errors and Biases Introduction Receiver-Dependent Errors Measurement Noise Receiver Clock Errors Antenna-Specific Errors Cycle Slips Satellite-Dependent Biases Orbit and Satellite Clock Errors Antenna-Specific Errors Signal Propagation Biases Ionospheric Refraction Tropospheric Refraction Summary Positioning Modes Point Positioning Relative Positioning High-Precision Positioning Conclusion Cross-References Bibliography GPS, Tectonic Geodesy Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Tectonic Geodesy Plate Motions Steady ``Interseismic Deformation´´ Transient Fault Movements Coseismic Deformation Real-Time Coseismic Deformation Postseismic Deformation Volcano Deformation Glacial Isostatic Adjustment and Sea Level Studies Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravimeters Synonyms Definition Introduction Performance Requirements Technology Sensor Technology Fused Quartz Metal Superconducting Inertial-Grade Accelerometers Design Principles Gravity Sensor Natural Period, Sensitivity, and Seismic Noise Displacement Sensing and Feedback Error Sources Intrinsic Error Sources Scale Factor Changes Instrument Noise Long-Term Drift External Noise Sources Sensor Motion and Orientation Temperature, Pressure, and Magnetic Field Transportation Effects Gravimeters Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Anomalies, Interpretation Definition Introduction Formulation of the Problem Gravity Anomalies: Conditions and Enhancement Forward Method Inverse Method Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Data, Advanced Processing Synonyms Definition Introduction Spectral Modeling Potential Field Transformations Euler and Werner Deconvolution Euler Deconvolution Extended Euler Deconvolution Tensor Deconvolution Wavelet Analysis, with Advantages and Limitations Introduction The CWT and Windowed Fourier Transform Applications Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Data, Regional-Residual Separation Definition Introduction Regional-Residual Separation Analytical Methods Possible Drawbacks in Regional Computation New Approach Based on Finite Element Analysis Accuracy Paradox Basin, Utah (Frequency-Domain) Residual Gravity Anomalies Klamath Mountains and Cascade Range (Model-Based Space-Domain) Recent Studies on FEM Applications Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Field of the Earth Definition and Scope Introduction Historical Notes Newton´s Law of Gravitation Spatial and Temporal Variation Above the Surface Spherical Harmonics Green´s Functions The Disturbing Potential Spectral Contributions Low-Degree Harmonics Low-Degree Harmonics as Density Moments Normal Reference Field Earth´s Internal Gravitational Field Summary Bibliography Gravity Field, Temporal Variations from Space Techniques Definition The GRACE Mission (2002-2017) Modeling Temporal Geoid Variations GRACE Data Errors Applications of GRACE Hydrology Land Ice Loss from GRACE Ocean Mass Change GIA Effect Coseismic and Post-seismic Deformations Due to Large Earthquakes Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Field, Time Variations from Surface Measurements Synonyms Definition Introduction Concepts and Applications Tides Sea Level Variation Atmospheric Pressure Polar Motion Free Oscillations of the Earth Glacial Isostatic Adjustment Volcanic Mass Changes Crustal Deformation Associated with Earthquakes Hydrology Oil, Gas and Geothermal Reservoir Monitoring Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Measurements, Absolute Synonyms Definition Introduction History Principles of Modern Measurements Macroscopic Falling Test Mass Microscopic Falling Test Masses Instrumentation Applications to Geophysics Summary Bibliography Gravity Method, Airborne Synonyms Definition Introduction Principle Idea of Airborne Gravity Attitude Compensation Platforms Scalar Gravity Meters Vector Gravity Meters Gravity Gradient Meters Processing, Reductions, and Corrections Applications and Aircraft Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Method, Principles Synonyms Definition Introduction Potential Function Newton´s Law and Newtonian Potential Anomalies Ambiguity and Principle of Equivalence The Inversion Problem Units and Gravitational Constant Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Method, Satellite Definition Introduction Geodesy, Gravity Field, and Scientific Applications: Why? Classical Ways of Measuring the Earth´s Gravity Field New Satellite Missions Overview of Satellite Dynamics Methods The Representation of the Gravitational Potential The Solution of the Dynamical Problem Reference System and Time Scale Equations of Motion Integration of the Equations of Motion Variational Equations and Their Integration The Observation Equations for the Inverse Problem General Form of the Equations Example: Range Measurement Generic Observation Equation The Solution of the Inverse Problem Progress Made: A Short Summary Conclusion and Vision of the Future of Gravity Mapping from Satellite Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Method, Surface Definition Introduction Measuring Equipment Gravity Measurements Elevation and Position Measurements Land Gravity Survey Preprocessing of Field Data Drift Correction Base Loop Correction Marine Gravity Survey Moving Platform Correction Earth Tide Correction Drift Correction Network or Crossover Adjustments Design of Survey Regional Surveys for Geodynamic Studies Hydrocarbon Exploration Reconnaissance Gravity Survey Detailed/Integrated Gravity Survey Surveys for Minerals, Groundwater, and Engineering Sites Reconnaissance Survey Detailed/Integrated Gravity Survey Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity Modeling, Theory and Computation Definition The Gravity Modeling from a Theoretical Point of View The Linear Inverse Gravimetric Problem The Nonlinear Inverse Gravimetric Problem Spectral Approaches Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity, Data to Anomalies Definition Introduction Key Parameters Observed Gravity Anomalous Gravity in Geophysics Computing Model Gravity at the Measurement Point A Note on Units Normal Gravity (Fig. 2b) Free Air Correction (Fig. 2c) Bouguer Correction (Fig. 2d) Terrain Correction (Fig. 2e) Anomaly Computation Other Factors Atmospheric Correction Further Isolating Anomalies of Interest Distant Relief The Geophysical ``Indirect Effect´´ Gravity Anomalies for Geodetic Purposes Computation Example: The Central Andes Summary Bibliography Gravity, Global Models Synonyms Definition Global Gravitational Models Introduction Local and Regional Gravimetric Models Signal Representation and Data Characteristics The Recent Gravity-Mapping Satellite Missions Beyond the Sensitivity of Satellite Data State-of-the-Art Global Gravitational Modeling Model Evaluation and Accuracy Assessment Summary Cross-References Bibliography Gravity, Gradiometry Definition and Scope Introduction Mathematical Foundations Gravitational Gradients Other Coordinate Systems Invariants Models and Modeling Reference Field and Power Spectral Density Measurement Error Analysis Gradiometry Applications Summary Bibliography Great Earthquakes Definition Introduction 1 November 1755: The Advance of Rationalism 18 April 1906: The Archetype of Earthquakes 26 December 2004: Cataclysm 11 March 2011: Prepared or Not Prepared? Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography H Heat and Ground Water Flow Definition Energy Equation for Ground Water Flow Heat Advection Hydrothermal Systems Heat Convection Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Heat Flow Determinations, Continental Definition Introduction Temperature Thermal Conductivity In Situ Thermal Conductivity Measurement in Boreholes Sampling Summary Cross-References Bibliography Heat Flow, Continental Synonyms Definition Introduction Fourier´s Law Geothermal Gradient Sources of Heat Mechanisms of Heat Transport Global Distribution of Continental Heat Flow Paleo-Heat Flow Summary Cross-References Bibliography Heat Flow, Seafloor: Methods and Observations Definition History of Observations Methods Shallow Measurements in Marine Sediments Deep Borehole Measurements Estimating Heat Flux From the Depth Limit of Gas Hydrate Stability Example Studies Heat Flow Signals from Hydrothermal Circulation Dependence of Heat Flux on Age and the Global Average The Signature of Subduction Bottom-Water Temperature Perturbations Summary Cross-References Bibliography Height Systems, Vertical Datums and Their Unification Definition Introduction Height Systems Vertical Datum Definition and Realization Geodetic BVP Solutions for Single and Multiple Vertical Datums Determination of Vertical Datum Offsets Summary and Outlook Cross-References Bibliography High-Frequency Seismology Synonyms Definition Introduction Basic Wave Propagation Principle Acoustic Wave Propagation Elastic Wave Propagation Elastic Wave Equation Theory of Seismic Wave Attenuation and Its Effects on Seismic Waveform Methods of Analysis of High-frequency Seismograms Scattering of Seismic Waves in Heterogeneous Media Coda Wave Analysis Seismogram Analysis of the 1999 Chamoli Earthquake Summary and Outlook Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography I Impact Craters on Earth Definition The Terrestrial Record Introduction Distribution Morphology Geology of Impact Structures Geophysics of Impact Structures Impacts and Earth History Concluding Remarks Cross-References Bibliography Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity Definition Introduction Basic Resistivity Instruments Electrode Types Multielectrode and Multichannel Systems Full-Waveform Systems Capacitively Coupled Systems Automated Resistivity Monitoring Systems Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Instrumentation, EM Definition Introduction Electric Field Measurement Magnetic Field Measurement EM Transmitters Data Acquisition Systems Navigation Summary Cross-References Bibliography International Geophysical Year Definition Introduction and Concept History Scope Operations Achievements Summary Cross-References Bibliography International Gravity Formula Definition Cross-References Bibliography International Polar Year 2007-2008 Concept History Scope Achievements Major Advances in Polar Knowledge and Understanding Infrastructure Legacy A New Generation Excite and Stimulate the Public Challenges Ahead Summary Cross-References Bibliography International Year of Planet Earth Definition Background and Activities Legacy Perspectives The Earth Science Matters Foundation GEOPARKS as a Tool Global Geoscience Initiative Summary Cross-References Bibliography Inverse Theory, Artificial Neural Networks Definition Introduction Geophysical Inversion Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) Geophysical Inversion Using Artificial Neural Networks Summary Cross-References Bibliography Inverse Theory, Global Optimization Definition Global Optimization Introduction Method Background Optimization Simulated Annealing Genetic Algorithm Neighborhood Algorithm (NA) Particle Swarm Optimization Trans-dimensional Inversion Applications Summary Cross-References Bibliography Inverse Theory, Linear Introduction Linear Inverse Problems Generalized Inverses Least Square Inverse Minimum Norm Inverse Damped Least Square Inverse Weighted Damped Least Square Inverse Rao-Mitra Inverse Backus-Gilbert Method Continuous Inverse Problem Discrete Inverse Problem Trade-Off Between Resolution and Error Propagation Summary Cross-References Bibliography Inverse Theory, Monte Carlo Method Definition Introduction Nonlinearity and Multimodal Fitness Functions Bayesian Inference Markov Chain Monte Carlo Fixed Dimension Approach Transdimensional Approach A Simple Example Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Inverse Theory, Singular Value Decomposition Definition Description Inverse of A Rank-Deficient Matrix and Its Inverse Ill-Condition Matrix Sensitivity to Errors in Data Resolution Matrices Example Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Isostasy Synonyms Definition Historical Background Concepts and Applications Current Investigations Current Controversies and Gaps in Knowledge The Long-Term Strength of the Lithosphere Time-Scales of Isostatic Adjustment Isostasy and Landscape Evolution Long-Wavelength Gravity and Topography Anomalies, Isostasy, and Mantle Dynamics Conclusions Bibliography Isostasy, Thermal Definition Introduction Thermal Isostasy Oceanic Thermal Isostasy Continental Thermal Isostasy Normalizing Compositional Elevation Continental Thermal State Revealing Thermal Isostasy on Continents The North American Cordillera Australia Thermal Isostasy on Terrestrial Planets Summary Cross-References Bibliography K KTB Depth Laboratory: A Window into the Upper Crust Definition Introduction Scientific Background KTB Data Infrastructure KTB Depth Laboratory Utilization Geoscientific Experiments Test and Calibration of New and Existing Instruments, Methods, and Installations Commercial Utilization of the KTB Wells Outreach and Education Long-Term Utilization of a Deep Borehole Site Summary Cross-References Bibliography L Legal Continental Shelf: Geology, Geophysics, and Tectonics Synonyms Definition Introduction Defining the Outer Edge of the Continental Margin and the Limits of the Continental Shelf Prolongation of the Land Mass Role of Geology and Tectonics Summary Bibliography Lithosphere, Continental Definition and Introduction Mechanical Models Thermal Models Seismological/Compositional Models: Tectosphere Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Boundary Summary and Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Lithosphere, Continental: Thermal Structure Definition Introduction The Thermal Boundary Layer of Mantle Convection Thermal Structure Heat Flux at the Base of the Continental Crust and at the Base of the Lithosphere Heat Flux and Heat Production The Moho Heat Flux Lithospheric Geotherms Thermal Transients Secular Transients Summary Cross-References Appendix: Thermal Conductivity Lattice Conductivity Bibliography Lithosphere, Mechanical Properties Synonyms Definition Introduction Mechanical Properties at Different Timescales Sources of Information on the Mechanical Properties of the Lithosphere Observations of Flexural Behavior and Effective Long-Term Strength of the Lithosphere Rheological Properties of Lithosphere According to Rock Mechanics Data Elastic Properties Brittle-Plastic Properties Viscous-Ductile Properties Mechanical Properties of Oceanic Lithosphere Versus Continental Lithosphere Mechanical Properties of the Lithosphere and Four Modes of Horizontal Deformation Uncertainties of Data on the Mechanical Properties of the Lithosphere Mechanical Properties of the Lithosphere and Styles of Tectonic Deformation Links Between Different Timescales: Burger´s Rheology Model Summary Cross-References Bibliography Lithosphere, Oceanic Definition Introduction The Mantle Component of the Lithosphere Models Constrained by the Cooling of the Lithosphere as It Ages Models Constrained by Rheological Observations Models Constrained by Seismic and Magnetotelluric Observations Surface Waves Studies Studies Using Seismic Body Wave Phases Other Geophysical Studies The Crustal Component of the Oceanic Lithosphere Samples of Crustal Rocks Ophiolites, Ocean Drilling, and the Ocean Crust Seismic Studies of the Ocean Crust The Midocean Ridges Hydrothermal Activity Along-Axis Variations in Ridge Processes and Slow-Spreading Ridges Summary Cross-References Bibliography Lithosphere, Oceanic: Thermal Structure Definition Introduction Key Observations Heat Flux Seafloor Depth Depth of the Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Boundary Other Observational Constraints Ways of Understanding Lithospheric Thermal Structure Boundary-Layer Cooling Plate Cooling Models Influence of Plumes Driving Forces for Lithospheric Motion Summary Cross-References Bibliography Lithospheric Magnetic Anomalies from Satellite Data Synonyms Definition Introduction The Lithospheric Field from Space Mathematical Background Global Models of Lithospheric Magnetic Anomalies Summary Cross-References Bibliography M Magnetic Anisotropy Definition Introduction Theoretical Principles Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy Shape Anisotropy Magnetostriction: Stress Anisotropy Exchange Anisotropy Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS) AMS: Applications in Geology and Geophysics Anisotropy of the Magnetic Remanence (AMR) AARM: Anisotropy of Anhysteretic Remanent Magnetization AIRM: Anisotropy of Isothermal Remanent Magnetization HFAMS: High-Field Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetic Anomalies: Interpretation Definition Introduction The Sources of Crustal and Lithospheric Fields Measuring Magnetic Anomalies from Planes and Ships Satellite Measurements World Magnetic Anomalies: WDMAM Qualitative Interpretations Quantitative Geological Interpretations Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetic Anomaly Map, Global Definition Introduction Early Developments Aeromagnetic and Marine Compilations Satellite Compilations Preparation of the Global Magnetic Anomaly Map Methods Line Leveling of Data Least Squares Collocation Merging Satellite Models Other Candidate Models for WDMAM The Gamma Model The Leeds Model Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid (EMAG2) NGDC-720 Lithospheric Magnetic Model Enhanced Magnetic Model World Digital Magnetic Anomaly MAP Version 2.0 (WDMAM2.0) Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetic Data Enhancements and Depth Estimation Synonyms Definition Introduction Standard Magnetic Data Processing Corrections Diurnal Correction Network Adjustment (Leveling) Microleveling Elevation Correction De-culturing of Magnetic Field Data Gridding of Magnetic Field Data IGRF Correction Reduction to Pole (RTP) Transform The Pseudo-Gravity Transform Enhancements of Magnetic Data Image Display of Magnetic Field Data Vertical Continuation of the Field Vertical Gradients of the Field Bandpass and Matched Filters Regional-Residual Separation The Total Gradient (Analytic Signal) The Tilt Filter The Normalized Source Strength (NSS) Multiscale Edge Detection (``Worms´´) Mapping Extreme Field Variations Analytic Derivation of Magnetic Source Parameters The Werner Method The Naudy Method Euler Deconvolution Targeted (``Sweet-Spot´´) Inversion Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetic Domains Definition Introduction Classical Models of Magnetic Domain Structure Exchange Energy Magnetic Anisotropy Energy Magnetostatic Energy Energy and Width of the Domain Wall Domain Width Versus Grain Size Single-Domain/Two-Domain Transition Size do Domains and Domain Walls Near Crystal Surfaces Temperature Dependence of Domain Structure Micromagnetic Models Experimental Studies of Magnetic Domains Methods of Imaging Domains and Domain Walls Styles of Domains Observed in Magnetic Minerals of Paleomagnetic Significance Number of Domains Versus Grain Size Domain Wall Widths Experimental Evidence for Local Energy Minimum (lEm) Domain States LEM States and Thermomagnetic Treatments Evolution of Magnetic Domain Structures at Elevated Temperatures Magnetic Domain Structure in Magnetite at Low Temperatures Cross-References Bibliography Magnetic Gradiometry Definition On the Conceptual Design of Gradiometers Magnetometers Advantages and Limitations Areas of Application Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetic Gradiometry in Archaeo-geophysics Definition Advantages of Magnetic Gradiometers Instruments Procedure in the Field Case Studies Do Different Measurement Instruments Deliver Different Results? Conclusion Cross-References Bibliography Magnetic Methods, Airborne Synonyms Definition Introduction Making Magnetic Measurements from the Air Equipment The Importance of Source-Sensor Separation Survey Design Survey Specifications Data Processing Correction for Temporal Changes in the Geomagnetic Field Removal of Geomagnetic Field Tie-Line Leveling Microleveling Gridding Discussion of Data Processing Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetic Methods, Principles Definition Introduction: Magnetic Field on Surface of Earth Major Aspects of Probing the Geomagnetic Field Core/Main Field and Its Changes Developments in Observational Methods Resulting Knowledge External Field Developments in Observational Methods Resulting Knowledge Lithospheric Field Developments in Observational Methods Resulting Knowledge Induced Field Methods to Study Subsurface Conductivity Structure Methods to Study Geomagnetically Induced Currents (GIC) in the Earth´s Surface Paleo Field Developments in Observational Methods Resulting Knowledge Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Magnetic Methods, Surface Definition Magnetic Observatory Measurements at Magnetic Observatories Observations from this Data Products and Uses of Observatory Data Land and Marine Surveys Principles of Survey Measurements Land Surveys Marine Magnetic Surveys Instrumentation Technologies Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetic Modeling, Theory, and Computation Definition Introduction Global Field Modeling Spatial and Temporal Description Inverse Problem and Implementation Recent Developments in Magnetic Field Modeling Regional Field Modeling Harmonic Splines Wavelet Analysis Interpretation Core Magnetic Field at Core-Mantle Boundary Lithospheric Magnetic Field over the Arctic and African Regions Conclusions Acknowledgments Bibliography Magnetometers Synonyms Definition Introduction Scalar (Quantum) Magnetometers Background Physics Proton Magnetometers Overhauser Magnetometer Optically Pumped Magnetometers Measurement of Frequency Absolute Accuracy and Precision Vector Magnetometers Fluxgate Magnetometer Absolute Measurement Quantum Vector Magnetometers Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetotelluric Data Processing Definition Introduction MT Transfer Functions Least Squares Transfer Function Estimation Robust Estimation Leverage Remote Reference Error Estimates Strike and Distortion Analysis Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetotelluric Interpretation What Is Magnetotellurics? Fundamental Concepts: Surface Impedance and Apparent Resistivity Principles of Depth Sounding Effects of Lateral Heterogeneities Current Strategies for MT Interpretation Case Studies Summary Cross-References Bibliography Magnetotellurics, Crustal Imaging Definition Costa Rican Subduction Zone Ethiopian Rift and Afar Himalayas San Andreas Fault Antarctica (Vestfold Hills and Rauer Group) Dharwar Craton, India Gawler Craton, Australia Summary Bibliography Magnetovariation Studies Definition Interpretation Summary Cross-References Bibliography Mantle Convection Synonyms Definition Introduction and History Basics of Thermal or Free Convection Rayleigh-Bénard Convection Convective Onset and the Rayleigh Number Thermal Boundary Layers and the Nusselt Number Patterns of Convection: Upwellings, Downwellings, Plumes, and Slabs Plumes and Slabs in the Mantle: Simple View Energy Sources for Mantle Convection and the Earth´s Thermochemical History Effects of Mantle Material Properties Mantle Rheology Compressibility, Melting, and Solid Phase Changes Mantle Geochemistry and Mantle Mixing Mantle Convection and the Generation of Plate Tectonics The Plate Generation Problem Summary Bibliography Mantle D Layer Definition and Introduction Seismic Velocity Models for D Seismic Velocity Discontinuities in D Post-perovskite in D Large Low Shear Velocity Provinces in D Ultra-Low Velocity Zones in D Seismic Velocity Anisotropy in D Summary Cross-References Bibliography Mantle Plume: Spreading Ridge Interactions Synonyms Definition Spreading Ridge System Mantle Plume Dynamics of Proximity of Spreading Ridge Activity and Hotspot Volcanism Crustal Structure Beneath the Spreading Ridge, Volcanic Ridge and on-Spreading-Axis Hotspot Setting Summary Bibliography Mantle Plumes Definition Hotspots Global Hotspot Distribution and Hotspot Fixity Evidence for Mantle Plumes Geochemistry of Mantle Plumes Genesis and Dynamics of Plumes and Superplumes Plume Melting and Plume Strength Continental Flood Basalts and Continental Breakup LIP Magmatism and Environmental Effects Plume-Lithosphere Interaction Plume-Ridge Interaction Summary and Conclusion Future Directions Cross-References Bibliography Mantle Viscosity Definition Introduction Methods of Measurement Non-Newtonian Rheology from Seismic Anisotropy Natural Experiments Mantle Viscosity from Glacial Isostatic Adjustment Observational Data Sets Results of Inversion of the Totality of the Data to Determine Mantle Viscosity Depth Dependence Compatibility of the GIA-Based Viscosity Model with that Required by Models of the Mantle Convection Process Summary Cross-References Bibliography Mapping of Magnetic Variations from Space Definition Measurements from Space POGO Satellite Series MAGSAT Mission Decade of Geopotential Field Research Modeling of Satellite Measurements The Future Summary Cross-References Bibliography Microcontinents Definition Introduction Examples of Present-Day Microcontinents The Jan Mayen Microcontinent in the North Atlantic Ocean The Batavia and Gulden Draak Microcontinents in the Eastern Indian Ocean Formation Mechanisms of Microcontinents Summary and Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography N Numerical Methods for Flow in Fractured Porous Media Definition Introduction Numerical Models for Fractured Porous Media Continuum Fracture Models Discrete Fracture Models Discretization Schemes for DFM An Example of Computational Workflow Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Numerical Methods, Boundary Element Definition Introduction How Does BEM Work? What Can BEM Do? Applications of the Boundary Element Method Cross-References Bibliography Numerical Methods, Domain Decomposition Definition Introduction Algorithms Without Overlap Methods with Overlap Application to Geophysical and Geological Problems Cross-References Bibliography Numerical Methods, Finite Difference Definition Introduction Theory of Wave Propagation and Fundamental Concepts Finite-Difference Approximations Accuracy and Numerical Dispersion Lax-Wendroff Corrections, Optimally Accurate FD Schemes and Time Dispersion Correction Time Stepping and Stability Boundary Conditions Topography and Conformal Mapping of Grids Source Implementations Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Numerical Methods, Finite Element Definition General Introduction Finite Element Model of 2-D Poisson Equation Finite Element Models of the 2-D Navier-Stokes Equations Velocity-Pressure (Mixed) Model Penalty-Finite Element Model Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Numerical Methods, Multigrid Definition Introduction History Two-Grid Scheme Multigrid Nonlinear Multigrid Generalizations Beyond Partial Differential Equations Geophysical Applications Summary Cross-References Bibliography O Ocean Bottom Seismics Synonyms Introduction Instrumentation Ocean Bottom Seismometers Ocean Bottom Cables Ocean Bottom Seismic Nodes Ocean Bottom Seismic Sources Applications P-Waves P-to-S Converted Waves Wide-Aperture (Wide-Azimuth) Studies Passive-Source Seismology Future Developments Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Ocean, Spreading Center Definition Introduction Morphology and Spreading Rates of Mid-Oceanic Ridge Internal Structure of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge Relationships Between Spreading Rate, Seismic Structure, and Ridge-Axis Morphology Summary Cross-References Bibliography Orogenic Belts Synonyms Partial Synonyms Definition Introduction The Orogenic Architecture Subduction-Controlled Orogens Collision-Controlled Orogens Species of Orogens Orogenic Collages Magmatism in Orogens Subduction Magmatism Collision Magmatism Metamorphism in Orogens Subduction-Related Metamorphism Collision-Related Metamorphism Geomorphology of Orogenic Belts Economic Deposits in Orogenic Belts Hydrocarbons Coal Metals Building Materials Summary Bibliography Further Reading P Paleomagnetic Field Intensity Synonyms Definition Introduction Absolute Palaeointensity Measurements Relative Palaeointensity Measurements Cosmogenic Isotope Palaeointensity Measurements Geophysical Applications Summary Cross-References Bibliography Paleomagnetism, Magnetostratigraphy Synonyms Definition Magnetic Stratigraphy Introduction Detrital Remanent Magnetization Field and Laboratory Techniques Calibration and Correlation Strengths and Weaknesses of Magnetic Stratigraphy Some Applications and Implications Summary Cross-References Bibliography Paleomagnetism, Measurement Techniques and Instrumentation Synonyms Definition Introduction Techniques of Sampling, Measurement and Analysis Field Sampling Measurement and Treatment Analysis Statistics Determination of Palaeomagnetic Poles Instrumentation Spinner Magnetometers Cryogenic Magnetometers Alternating Field Demagnetizers Thermal Demagnetization A Perspective on Seventy Years of Palaeomagnetism Summary Cross-References Bibliography Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander Definition and Introduction Measure of True Polar Wander Is a Reference Frame Based on Hotspots Valid? Modeling of True Polar Wander An Integrated Explanation for Polar Wander? Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Paleomagnetism, Principles Definition Introduction The Geocentric Axial Dipole Rock Magnetism Remanent Magnetizations Statistical Testing of Paleomagnetic Data Virtual Geomagnetic Poles and Apparent Polar Wander Paths Magnetic Polarity Reversals Environmental Magnetism Summary Cross-References Bibliography Paleoseismology Synonyms Definition Introduction Paleoseismic Records Fault Identification and Slip Rate Evidence for Paleoearthquake Time Constraints of Paleoearthquakes Magnitude and Frequency of Paleoearthquakes Off-Fault Paleoseismology Seismic Hazard Assessment Based on Paleoseismology Issues in Paleoseismology and Perspectives Summary Cross-References Bibliography Plate Motions in Time: Inferences on Driving and Resisting Forces Definition Introduction Plate Tectonics and the Rheology of the Lithosphere Computer Models of the Faulted Lithosphere Coupled with Global Mantle Circulation Models Recent Plate Motion Changes Kinematics of the Southern Pacific and Atlantic, and Its Relations to Climate Variations and Topographic Growth in the Andes Plate Motion Changes in the Indian Ocean Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Plate Tectonics, Precambrian Definition Introduction Modern-Style Plate Tectonics and Criteria for Recognizing Plate Tectonics in the Precambrian Record Evolution of Earth´s Geodynamic Regime and the Onset of Plate Tectonics The Hadean Eon The Archean-Proterozoic Eons Summary Cross-References Bibliography Plate-Driving Forces Definition Introduction Balance Between Buoyancy Forces and Viscous Dissipation Plate-Driving Forces: Lithospheric Models Plate-Driving Forces: Whole-Mantle Models Summary Cross-References Bibliography Plates and Paleoreconstructions Definition Earthquakes and Plates Plate Compositions, Sizes, and Shapes Plate Tectonics Plate Motions and Euler´s Theorem Sliding Motions Divergent Motions Convergent Motions Reference Frames Plates as Reference Frames Paleomagnetism as a Reference Frame Hot-Spots as a Reference Frame Paleoreconstructions Conservation of Continental Shapes Record of Continental Separation in the Ocean-Floor Paleozoic and Precambrian Composites Paleo-Plate Reconstructions Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Poroelasticity Definition Basic Concepts Drained and Undrained Deformation Linear Stress-Strain Formulation for Poroelastic Media Gassmann´s Equation and Fluid Substitution Fluid Substitution Skempton Coefficient Three-Dimensional Consolidation Dynamic Poroelasticity and Wave Propagation in Saturated Porous Medium Bibliography Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fundamentals Definition Summary Introduction Newton´s Second Law Cauchy´s Stress and Strain Hooke´s Law Navier´s Equation D´Alembert Solution of Wave Equation Fourier Transforms and Plane Waves Green´s Function for Homogeneous Space Green´s Function Retrieval from Correlations Energy Densities at Given Points and Directions The Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio Concluding Remarks Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography R Radioactivity in Earth´s Core Definition Introduction Potassium Radioactivity in the Earth´s Core U (and th) Radioactivity in the Earth´s Core Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Radiogenic Heat Production in the Continental Crust Definition Crustal Thickness and Heat Production Crustal Differentiation Crustal Temperature and Strength Summary: Crustal Stabilization Cross-References Bibliography Radiogenic Heat Production of Rocks Synonyms Definition Radiogenic Heat Generation Tabulated Data Calculated Heat Generation Rate Measuring Techniques Heat Generation and Geoneutrinos Summary Cross-References Bibliography Recovery of Source Magnetization Direction from Magnetic Field Data Definition Introduction The Expression of Magnetization Direction in Magnetic Field Data Magnetization Contrast and Anomaly Separation Magnetization Direction and Source Location Magnetization Direction and Source Shape Complex Distributions of Magnetization Homogeneity and Inhomogeneity of Magnetization Magnetic Field Studies and Paleomagnetism Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Remanent Magnetism Definition Introduction Source of RM Natural Remanent Magnetization (NRM) Thermoremanent Magnetization (TRM) Detrital Remanent Magnetization (DRM Chemical Remanent Magnetization (CRM) Viscous Remanent Magnetization (VRM) Isothermal Remanent Magnetization (IRM) Applications of Remanent Magnetization Summary Cross-References Bibliography Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for Tectonic Studies Synonyms Definition Introduction Data and Method Remote Sensing Tectonic Studies Geographic Information System (GIS) Summary Cross-References Bibliography Remote Sensing, Applications to Geophysics Definition Introduction Application of Remote Sensing to Geophysics Summary Cross-References Bibliography S SAR Interferometry Synonyms Definition Introduction Fundamentals of SAR Imaging and SAR Data Fundamental Principles of InSAR InSAR Processing Outlook for InSAR Geodesy Cross-References Bibliography Satellite Altimetry Synonyms Definition Satellite Altimetry Measurement Principles in Altimetry Oceanography by Altimetry Hydrology by Altimetry Ice and Cryosphere Monitoring Summary Acknowledgments Bibliography Seafloor Spreading Definition Introduction The Revolution Ridge Axis Geometry, Morphology, and Crustal Formation Hydrothermal Vents Summary Cross-References Bibliography Sedimentary Basins Definition Basin Types Basin-Forming Mechanisms Conceptual Models of Basin Formation The Configuration of the Sediment Fill The Configuration of the Crust Beneath Sedimentary Basins The Configuration of the Mantle Lithosphere Heat Flow in Sedimentary Basins Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Data Acquisition and Processing Definition Introduction Seismic Data Acquisition Seismic Sources Seismic Receivers Seismic Recorder Acquisition Geometry Seismic Data Processing Introduction Signal vs. Noise Kinematics of the Seismic Signal (Primaries) NMO Dipping Bed Many Reflectors: Layer-Cake Velocities in Seismics NMO Stretch Semblance: A Measure of Signal Alignment Velocity: Processing Point of View Amplitude Changes along the Propagation Path Geometrical Spreading Absorption Energy Partitioning at Interfaces Waveforms: Convolution, Deconvolution Convolutional Model of the Seismic Trace Deconvolution as Inverse Filtering Wavelet Processing Deterministic Deconvolution Statistical Deconvolution The Processing Flow: Putting it all Together Preprocessing Prestack Processing Poststack Processing: Positioning Properly No-Stack Processing: Imaging Complex Structures Special Processing Some Recent Developments Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Diffraction Definition Introduction Diffraction Theories Geometrical Theory of Diffraction Kirchhoff Approximation Perturbation Theory: Born and Rytov Approximation Numerical Methods Used to Compute Diffraction Wavefield An Example of Seismic Diffraction from a Single Fracture Diffraction Tomography Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Discontinuities in the Transition Zone Definition Mineral Physics Data on the Phase Transitions in the TZ Seismic Methods Topography and Sharpness of TZ Discontinuities The Issue of Water in the TZ Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Hazard Definition Introduction Cornell-McGuire PSHA Methodology Estimation of Seismic Source Parameters Numerical Computation of PSHA Deaggregation of Seismic Hazard Modifications of Cornell-McGuire PSHA Procedure and Alternative Models Source-Free PSHA Procedures Alternative Earthquake Recurrence Models Ground Motion Models Uncertainties in PSHA Logic Tree Controversy Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Imaging, Overview Definition Inversion Theory Five Types of Seismic Imaging Methods Migration Least Squares Migration Full Waveform Inversion Wave Equation Traveltime Inversion Migration Velocity Analysis Recent Advances in Seismic Imaging Multiscale Waveform Inversion Phase-Encoded Multisource Waveform Inversion Current Status and Future of Seismic Imaging Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Instrumentation Synonyms Definition Introduction Requirements for Instruments Inertial Seismometers: Basic Principles Mechanical Design Electronic Design Calibration Installation Displacement Seismometry Using Satellites Deformation Seismometers Seismic Data Recording Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Microzonation Definition Introduction Methodology Example 1: Seismic Microzonation Based on Geomorphological Classification Maps Example 2: Seismic Microzonation Based on Dense Borehole Data and GIS Example 3: Seismic Microzonation Based on Microtremor Measurements Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Monitoring of Nuclear Explosions Definition Introduction Basic Properties of Earthquake and Explosion Signals The Different Steps in Explosion Monitoring Detection Association Location Methods of Identification Yield Estimation Special Events Evasion Event Detection Capability of the International Monitoring System Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Noise Definition Introduction Types of Seismic Noise Enhancing Signal Over Noise Use of Noise as Signal Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Phase Nomenclature: The IASPEI Standard Definition Introduction Standard Letters, Signs, and Syntax Used for Describing Seismic Phases Capital Letters Exceptions Lowercase Letters and Signs Syntax of Generating Complex Phase Names Examples for Creating Complex Standard Phase Names Refracted and Converted Refracted Wave Pure Reflected Waves Reflected Waves with Conversion at the Reflection Point Ray-Path Diagrams for Some of the IASPEI Standard Phases IASPEI Standard Seismic Phase List Crustal Phases Mantle Phases Core Phases Near-Source Surface Reflections and Conversions (Depth Phases) Surface Waves Acoustic Phases Amplitude Measurements Unidentified Arrivals Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Properties of Rocks Synonyms Definition Introduction Measurement Techniques Rock Velocities Velocity Anisotropy Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Quiescence and Activation Definition Introduction Main Phases of Seismic Quiescence and Activation Physical Mechanisms Leading to Seismic Quiescence and Activation Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Ray Theory Definition Introduction Basic Equations of the Seismic Ray Method Eikonal Equation. Polarization Vector Ray Tracing and Travel-Time Computation Transport Equation. Computation of Ray-Theory Amplitudes Dynamic Ray Tracing. Paraxial Approximations Coupling Ray Theory for S Waves in Anisotropic Media Effects of Structural Interfaces Ray-Theory Elastodynamic Green Function Chaotic Rays. Lyapunov Exponents Ray Perturbation Methods Ray Perturbation Method for Weakly Dissipative Media Concluding Remarks. Applications, Modifications, and Extensions of the Ray Method Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Seismic Reservoir Characterization Definition Introduction Seismic Data Processing Seismic-Well Tie Seismic Rock Physics Seismic Inversion for Reservoir Properties Applications of Machine Learning Methods in Reservoir Characterization Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Seismic Seiches Definition Bibliography Seismic Signals in Well Water Observations Synonyms Definition Introduction Co- and Post-seismic Signals Transient Signals Preseismic Signals Mechanisms Summary Bibliography Seismic Stereotomography Synonyms Definition History Data and Model in Slope Tomography Applications of Slope Tomography Challenges and Perspectives Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean Ridges Definition Introduction Mantle Structure Crustal Structure Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Tomography Definition History Onset Times Model Parameterization and Inversion Normal Modes and Surface Waves Finite-Frequency Tomography Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Velocity and Temperature Relationships Definition Acknowledgments Bibliography Seismic Viscoelastic Attenuation Synonyms Definition Introduction How Do Seismic Waves Attenuate? Geometric Spreading Intrinsic Viscoelastic Attenuation Scattering Attenuation Linear Viscoelasticity Rheology Anelastic Hysteresis Q and Complex Velocity The Q-1(ω) Relaxation Spectrum Velocity Dispersion Effects of Scattering Equivalent Medium Stochastic Dispersion Effects of Anisotropy Measurement and Modeling Attenuation The Attenuation Operator for Body Waves Free Oscillations and Surface Waves Numerical Modeling Interpretation of Attenuation Measurements in the Earth Shear Versus Bulk Attenuation Frequency Dependence Thermal Activation Regional Variations Strain Dependence Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic Wave Propagation in Real Media: Numerical Modeling Approaches Synonyms Definition Introduction Direct Methods Finite Difference Method Anisotropy Pseudospectral Method Finite Element and Spectral Element Methods Discontinuous Galerkin Method Integral Equation Methods Fast Multipole Method in Elastodynamics Analytic Solutions for Nonhomogeneous Media Equivalent Media Theories Asymptotic Ray Tracing Methods Poroelastic and Thermoelastic Media Boundaries Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Seismic Waves, Scattering Definition Introduction Statistical Description of the Earth The Coherent and Incoherent Fields The Propagation Regimes Analysis of Transmission Fluctuations Envelope Modeling: Markov Approximation Envelope Modeling: Radiative Transfer Global-Scale Scattering Interferometry with Scattered Waves Green Function Retrieval Monitoring Temporal Variations Summary Bibliography Seismic Zonation Definition Introduction Methodology Example: Seismic Zonation Map of China (2001) Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic, Ambient Noise Correlation Definition Introduction Theoretical Basis for the Interpretation of Noise Records at Two Stations Applications in Seismology Noise Source Origin and Distribution Noise-based Seismic imaging Noise-based Monitoring Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic, Artificial Intelligence to Neural Intelligence for Advanced Interpretation Definition Introduction: A Motivation for Automating Interpretation Examples of Meta-attributes Example 1: Thinned Fault Cube (TFC) Meta-attribute Example 2: Intrusion Cube (IC) Meta-attribute Example 3: Sill Cube (SC) Meta-attribute Example 4: Fluid Cube (FC) Meta-attribute Example 5: Mass Transport Deposit Cube (MTDC) Meta-attribute Conclusion Bibliography Seismic, Migration Synonyms Definition History Mapping Using Pencil and Paper: Mechanical Migration Digital Migration Poststack Migration Prestack Migration 2-D, 3-D, Wide-Azimuth 3-D Acquisition, and Migration Deep Crustal Imaging Time Migration, Depth Migration Purposes of Migration Structural Imaging Velocity Estimation Migrated Amplitude Analysis for Rock Property Determination Imaging Conditions Isochron Imaging Poststack Migration: Exploding Reflector Model Reflected Wavefield Amplitude Normalized by Source Wavefield Amplitude Deconvolution and Cross-Correlation Imaging Conditions Migration Techniques Integral (Kirchhoff) Migration Practical Considerations in Kirchhoff´s Migration Dip Limits Velocity Field Beam Migration One-Way Wave-Equation Migration (OWEM) Finite-Difference Migration Depth Step Frequency-Wave Number (f-k) Migration Stolt Stretch Factor Two-Way Wave-Equation Migration (Reverse-Time Migration) Migration Examples The Evolving Role of Migration in Seismic Data Processing Selection of Migration Algorithm Some Aspects of Migration Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic, Receiver Function Technique Synonyms Definition Receiver Function Technique Separation of P and S Waves Deconvolution Moveout Correction and Summation CCP Stack and Migration Waveform Modeling Two Data Examples New Technical Development of the S-Receiver Function Method Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic, Reflectivity Method Synonyms Definition The Reflectivity Method Introduction Plane Waves Simple Plane Wave Synthetics Theory Computational Issues Applications Extension to Laterally Heterogeneous Media Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismic, Super-Virtual Refraction Interferometry Definition Introduction Virtual Refraction Interferometry Super-Virtual Refraction Interferometry (SVI) SVI in Practice Iterative Super-Virtual Refraction Interferometry Very Noisy Data Summary Bibliography Seismic, Velocity, and Density Relationships Definition General Relation Between Velocity and Density Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Seismic, Waveform Modeling and Tomography Synonyms Definition Introduction Waveform Modeling Inverse Method Shot-Encoded Waveform Tomography The Restarted L-BFGS Algorithm Preprocessing for Field Data Waveform Tomography Seismic Reflection Waveform Tomography Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismicity, Intraplate Definition Historical Context Definitions and Classification Reasons to Distinguish Intraplate Earthquakes Do Intraplate and Interplate Earthquakes Scale Differently? What Drives Intraplate Earthquakes? Examples Controversy Summary or Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Seismicity, Subduction Zone Definition Introduction Interplate Earthquakes Trench-Outer Rise Intraplate Earthquakes Shallow Inland Intraplate Earthquakes Intraslab Earthquakes Intermediate-Depth Earthquakes Deep Earthquakes Summary Cross-References Bibliography Seismogram Interpretation Synonyms Definition Introduction Crustal Waves: Recording Distances 0-10 Body Waves Traversing the Mantle: Recording Distances 10-103 Body Waves Traversing the Core: Recording Distances 103 and Beyond Body Waves from Intermediate-Focus and Deep-Focus Earthquakes Surface Waves Volcanic Earthquakes and Unusual Seismic Sources Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Seismological Networks Definition Introduction Global Seismic Networks Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network International Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks International Monitoring System Regional Seismic Networks Euro-Med Region United States China Large-Scale Arrays International Registry of Seismograph Stations Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Seismology and Environment Definition Introduction Broadband Seismic Noise Continuous Monitoring of the Earth Environment Spatiotemporally Localized Events Glacial Earthquakes Cyclones (Hurricanes-Typhoons) Landslides New Challenges Cross-References Bibliography Seismology, Global Earthquake Model Definition Introduction The GEM Initiative The GEM Foundation Scientific Framework Institutional Framework Milestones and Scientific Products The Global Earthquake Model Global Earthquake Hazard Global Earthquake Risk Global Social Vulnerability and Integrated Risk Map Software and Analysis Tools OpenQuake Engine and Built-In Toolkits Interactive Global Earthquake Map Viewer Tool OpenQuake Platform Integrated Risk Modeling Toolkit (IRMT) Building Taxonomy Building Classification Survey Inventory Data Capture Tools (IDCT) Global Databases Global Instrumental Earthquake Catalogue (1900-2009) Global Historical Earthquake Catalogue and Archive (1000-1903) Updated Active Fault Database Updated Vulnerability Database Global Exposure Database (GED4GEM and GED4ALL) Current Status Future Program Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography GEM Foundation Website GEM OpenQuake Website Github Website Google Apps Website UNDRR Website ISC Website IASPEI Website QGIS Website Seismology, Monitoring of CTBT Definition Introduction Evaluation and Design of the Seismic Monitoring System: A Systems Engineering Perspective Advances in Seismology, Potentially Relevant to CTBT Monitoring ``Forensic Seismology´´: Evidences and Judgments Concluding Remarks: Interaction Between Science and CTBT Monitoring Cross-References Bibliography Seismology, Rotational Definition Introduction Early Attempts in Studying Rotational Motions Measuring Rotational Motions Large Ring Laser Gyros G Ring Laser and Recording Teleseisms Strong-Motion Inertial Angular Sensors Discussions Linear and Nonlinear Elasticity Near-Field Seismology Using Explosions to Study Rotational Motions Processing Collocated Measurements of Translations and Rotations Conclusion Cross-References Bibliography Sentinel Satellites Initiate New Era in Earth Observatories The Sentinel Satellites Sentinels and Landsat Free and Open Access to Data Widening the Market and the Access to Data Financial Challenges Shear-Wave Splitting: New Geophysics and Earthquake Stress-Forecasting Synonyms Definition Introduction Fundamental Features of Shear-Wave Splitting in the Crust Classes of Anisotropic Symmetry and Shear-Wave Splitting Cusps Shear-Wave Window Shear-Wave Singularities Sources of Shear-Wave Splitting Shear-Wave Splitting in the Upper Mantle Shear-Wave Splitting in Hydrocarbon Reservoirs Shear-Wave Splitting Above Small Earthquakes The New Geophysics Stress-Forecasting Earthquakes Summary Cross-References Bibliography Single and Multichannel Seismics Definition Introduction Single-Channel Seismics Multichannel Seismics Commonly Used High-Resolution Single- and Multichannel Seismic Sources Processing Considerations for High-Resolution Single- and Multichannel Seismic Profiles Summary Cross-References Bibliography Slow Earthquake Definition Early Studies on Slow and Silent Earthquake Long-Term Slow Slip Events Low-Frequency Tremor and Short-Term Slow Slip Pre-Seismic Slip Scaling Relation Mechanism of Slow Earthquake Concluding Remarks Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Potential Fields Synonyms Definition Introduction: Basic Formulas Boundary Value Problems (BVP) of Potential Theory Spherical Harmonic Analysis (SHA): Numerical Techniques Practical Aspects Summary Cross-References Bibliography Statistical Seismology Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Relations Precursors Stochastic Models of Earthquake Occurrence Physics-Based Models Testing of Forecasting Methods Operational Earthquake Forecasting Conclusion Cross-References Bibliography Subduction Zones Definition Introduction Morphology and Nomenclature Outer Rise, Trench, and Forearc Thrust Zone Kinematics Thermal Structure, Plate Buoyancy, Mantle Flow Fate of the Downgoing Plate: Devolatilization and Metamorphism Subduction Channel Melting and the Volcanic Arc Seismic Imaging of the Subduction Zone Subduction Zone Hazards Summary Cross-References Bibliography Surface Waves Definition Group and Phase Velocity Surface Wave Generation and Propagation Structure Studies Using Surface Waves Fundamental Mode Studies (Dispersion) Noise Cross-Correlation Methodology Global Studies of Structure Using Surface Waves Inversion of Surface Wave Dispersion Data Crustal Corrections Inversion Using Overtones Time Domain Surface Wave Inversions Effects of Scattering and the Born Approximation Upper Mantle Anisotropy from Surface Wave Studies Surface Wave Attenuation Source Studies Using Surface Waves The Earth´s Background Noise Spectrum: Hum and Microseisms Summary Cross-References Bibliography T T Waves Definition and Introduction Sources of T Waves Human Perception Use in Comprehensive Nuclear-Test Ban Treaty Monitoring Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate Quantification A Few Geophysical Applications Conclusion Cross-References Bibliography Tectonic Geomorphology Definition Tectonically Generated First-Order (103-102 Km Scale) Landscapes Transform Settings Convergent Settings Divergent Settings Signatures of Morphotectonic Landscapes Direct Evidences Geomorphic Markers of Transform Setting Geomorphic Markers of Divergent Setting Geomorphic Markers of Convergent Setting Geomorphic Markers in Multiple Settings Indirect Evidences Geomorphic Indices Tectonic Geomorphology and Paleoseismological Studies of Tectonic-Landforms Global Case Studies Summary Acknowledgments Bibliography Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Rocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat Synonyms Definition Thermal Storage Properties Heat Capacity Isobaric and Isochoric Specific Heat Capacity Measuring Techniques Calculated Heat Capacity Temperature Dependence Volumetric Heat Capacity: Thermal Capacity Latent Heat Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Rocks, II: Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity Synonyms Definition General Remark Thermal Conductivity Measuring Techniques Indirect Methods Thermal Conductivity of Minerals and Rocks Radiative Thermal Conductivity Variation with Temperature Variation with Pressure Variation with Other Factors Thermal Diffusivity Measuring Techniques Variation with Temperature Variation with Pressure Variation with Other Factors Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Time-Dependent Seismic Hazard Assessment Definition Time-Dependent Seismic Hazard Time-Dependent Seismic Hazard: Practical Tools and Case Examples of Application Conclusions and Discussion Cross-References Bibliography Time-Reversal in Seismology Definition History Time-Reversal Before Modern Electronics Modern Time-Reversal Location of Seismic Sources Related Seismic Methods Time-Reversal and Complexity Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography TOPO-EUROPE: From the Deep Earth to the Surface of Continental Europe and Its Margins Definition Introduction Deep Earth Lithosphere Structure Mantle-Lithosphere Interactions Sedimentary Basins and Geo-Resources Analogue Tectonic Modeling Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgments Bibliography Total Electron Content in Seismo-ionospheric Studies Synonyms Definition Introduction Methodology for Estimating Total Electron Content (TEC) from GPS Data Propagation Characteristics of CIDs Amplitudes of CID Propagation Speed of CIDs Directivity of CID Propagation Dip-slip Verus Strike-slip Earthquakes Preseismic Ionospheric Anomalies Influence of Equatorial Ionization Anomaly on CID Absence of CIDs Applications of CIDs in Ionospheric Seismology Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments Bibliography Tracking Earth´s Water in Motion from Satellite Gravity Observations Introduction GRACE Satellite Gravimetry Quantifying Mass Change Using GRACE Gravity Solutions Monitoring Land Water Cycle Using GRACE Monitoring Ice and Ocean Mass Change Using GRACE Summary Bibliography Trans-European Suture Zone Synonyms Definition Introduction Geologic-Tectonic Overview Geophysical Signature of TESZ Crustal Profile Gravity and Magnetic Signature Crustal Structure from Seismic Data Lithospheric Mantle in TESZ Conclusions Bibliography Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-Source Seismic Data Synonyms Definition Background Forward Modeling Traveltime Tomography and Inverison Algorithms Model Assessment More Examples Future Cross-References Bibliography Tsunami Definition Tsunami = Killer Wave? Tsunami Characteristics Tsunami Period, Velocity, and Wavelength Tsunami Eigenfunctions Tsunami Excitation Tsunami Excitation by Earthquakes Tsunami Excitation from Submarine Landslides Tsunami Excitation from Impacts Tsunami Propagation Tsunami Shoaling and Run-up Tsunami Samples Tsunami Forecasting Summary Cross-References Tsunami Watch and Warning Centers Definition Introduction Types of Tsunamis Regional Tsunami Warning Systems Key Components of a Tsunami Warning Center Observation Network Seismic Network Sea Level Network Tsunami Forecast Modeling Pre-run Model Scenario Database Inundation Modeling and Mapping Real-Time Tsunami Modeling for Propagation and Inundation Communication Infrastructure Decision Support System Typical Bulletins Issued by TWCs Service Levels Conclusion Acknowledgments Bibliography Tsunami: Bay of Bengal Definition Introduction Tsunami Hazard in the Bay of Bengal Plate Motion Along the Northern Sunda Arc Seismicity of the Northern Sunda Arc Region and Tsunami Hazard Indo-Burmese Arc Irrawaddy Region Andaman Sumatra Arc Region Summary Cross-References Bibliography U Uncertainties in Geomodelling Related to Geophysical Inversion Synonyms Definition Introduction Uncertainty Error and Accuracy Sensitivity Uncertainties in the Transformations of Earth Science Problems into a Mathematical Model: Reasoning Behind Modeling and Basic ... Reduction and Simplicity Concepts in Geosciences Interface Representations as Reduction of Reality Scale and Typical Representations Considerations of Complexity Mathematical Models of Interfaces General Interface Description Map-Based Interpolation Approaches Explicit and Implicit 3-D Interpolations Uncertainty in the Detection of Model Interfaces by Geological and Geophysical Methods As Model Describing Initial State Joint Inverse Frameworks Uncertainties in the Output of Material Parameters Relevance of Rock Physics Models Visualization of Uncertainties as Output of Density Models: An Example from the Central Andes Summary Cross-References Bibliography Unified Scaling Law for Earthquakes that Generalizes the Fundamental Gutenberg-Richter Relationship Definition Introduction Unified Scaling Law for Earthquakes Conclusion Cross-References Bibliography V Vertical Seismic Profiling Synonyms Definition Introduction Acquisition Techniques VSP Applications Summary Cross-References Bibliography Very Long Baseline Interferometry Synonyms Definition Introduction Methods and Techniques in Very Long Baseline Interferometry Physical Principles Data Calibration and Imaging VLBI Networks Geodetic and Geophysical Applications Reference Systems and Tectonics Earth Rotation Summary Cross-References Bibliography W Wavelet Analysis Synonyms Definition Introduction Continuous Wavelet Transform The Inversion Formula Use of the Physical Frequency Wavelets Wavelet Spectrum Amplitude and Phase Prograde and Retrograde Wavelet Spectrum Discrete Wavelet Transform Use of Wavelets in Geophysical Time-Series Analysis Instantaneous Parameters Polarization Analysis Dispersion Analysis Summary Cross-References Bibliography Author Index Subject Index
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