Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, Four-Volume Set

Climate History......Page 13
Ocean History......Page 14
Coastal Deposition and Erosion......Page 15
Cryosphere History......Page 16
Geologic Hazards......Page 17
Volcanic Eruptions......Page 18
Earthquakes and Tsunamis......Page 19
Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinctions......Page 20
References......Page 21
Introduction......Page 23
Establishing the Geologic Framework......Page 24
The Discovery of Pleistocene Mammals......Page 25
The Discovery of Pleistocene Glaciations......Page 26
Croll’s Orbital Theory......Page 27
The Milankovitch Theory......Page 28
The Invention of Dating Methods......Page 29
See also......Page 30
References......Page 31
Radiocarbon Dating......Page 32
Potassium-Argon and Argon-Argon Dating......Page 34
Fission Track Dating......Page 35
Luminescence Dating......Page 36
Electron Spin Resonance Dating......Page 37
Uranium Series Methods......Page 38
Amino Acid Racemization......Page 39
See also......Page 40
References......Page 41
Astronomical Rhythm of Climate Change......Page 42
Short-Term (’Sub-Milankovitch’) Climatic Variations......Page 44
The Role of the Oceans......Page 45
Global Feedback Mechanisms......Page 47
Numerical Environmental Modeling......Page 49
Climate and Humans......Page 50
References......Page 51
Relevant Website\r......Page 53
Factors Influencing the State of Biomolecules over Geologic Time......Page 54
Amino Acid Racemization......Page 55
Temperature......Page 57
Optimizing sample sites within a fossil......Page 59
Leaching......Page 60
Applications......Page 61
Absolute Age and Paleothermometry......Page 62
References......Page 64
Introduction......Page 66
The Transition to Paleoanthropology......Page 67
Adaptive Radiations and Climate Forcing......Page 68
From Dispersals to Diasporas and the Legacy of the Pleistocene......Page 71
Social Rather than Environmental Change......Page 72
Technological Modes and the Evolution of a Social Brain......Page 73
The Human Revolution: Gradual or Abrupt?......Page 75
References......Page 76
Introduction......Page 78
Oldowan......Page 81
Acheulean......Page 83
Conclusion......Page 86
References......Page 87
Early Pleistocene Hominin Remains from Java and Dmanisi......Page 88
Early Pleistocene Lithic Technology in Asia......Page 89
Early Pleistocene Hominin Subsistence and Settlement......Page 90
Middle Pleistocene Hominin Archives in Asia, 800-300ka......Page 92
The Levant......Page 93
India......Page 97
Tajikistan......Page 98
China and Southeast Asia......Page 99
The Movius Line......Page 100
Middle Pleistocene Hominins: Speciation Events and Isolation?......Page 102
References......Page 103
Introduction......Page 105
Across the MPT......Page 106
Social Construction......Page 109
Subsistence Behavior......Page 110
Tool Behavior......Page 111
Conclusion......Page 112
Glossary......Page 113
References......Page 114
Skeletal Morphological Evidence......Page 115
Archeological Evidence from Southern Africa......Page 116
The Klasies paradigm......Page 117
The Blombos paradigm......Page 118
Upper/Late Paleolithic or Late Stone Age......Page 119
Epipaleolithic and Neolithic......Page 120
The Insularity of the Coast of Northern Africa......Page 121
References......Page 122
Transitions in Lithic Production after 300ka......Page 124
The Levant......Page 125
Anatolia and the Taurus-Zagros Mountains......Page 126
South Asia......Page 127
Eastern Asia......Page 128
The Replacement of Indigenous Populations of Neanderthals, H. erectus and H. floresiensis by Modern Humans......Page 129
Settling and Sedentism: Developments after the Last Glacial Maximum......Page 131
References......Page 133
Paleoenvironments......Page 136
Chronology of Human Arrivals......Page 138
Physical Anthropology......Page 140
Impacts of Humans on Environments......Page 142
Technology and Economy......Page 144
References......Page 146
Introduction......Page 148
The Clovis First Model......Page 149
Late Pleistocene-Holocene Megafaunal Extinctions......Page 150
Dating and Craniometric Evidence on Human Skeletons......Page 151
Genetic evidence......Page 152
References......Page 153
Introduction......Page 155
Neanderthal and modern human technologies......Page 156
How and why did Neanderthals become extinct?......Page 160
References......Page 163
Relevant Websites......Page 165
World Overview......Page 166
Europe......Page 167
Late Glacial Expansion......Page 168
Maritime adaptations......Page 169
Lake and river settlements......Page 171
See also......Page 172
References......Page 173
The Perfect Proxy?......Page 174
Where Fossil Beetles Are Found......Page 175
Methods of Sampling and Extraction......Page 177
Basic Assumptions for Use in Paleoecology......Page 178
Thermal Tolerances of Beetles......Page 180
Mutual Climatic Range Analysis of Fossil Assemblages......Page 181
Multifaceted Paleoenvironmental Reconstructions......Page 182
Environmental Archeology......Page 183
References......Page 184
Late Tertiary and Early Quaternary......Page 185
Importance of Permafrost......Page 186
Research in Alaska and Canada......Page 187
Research in Siberia......Page 190
Potential Importance of Research......Page 191
Longevity of Insect Species......Page 192
Mutual Climatic Range Reconstructions......Page 193
References......Page 194
Introduction......Page 195
Sugworth......Page 196
Mathon......Page 197
Hoxne, Suffolk......Page 198
Cudmore Grove, Mersea Island, Essex......Page 199
Prospect for middle PleistoceneColeopteran studies in Western Europe......Page 200
References......Page 201
Appropria\rte Methods for the Australian Region......Page 203
Assessment \rof BIOCLIM Parameters for Paleoclimatic Reconstruction......Page 204
Error \rEstimation......Page 205
Temperature parameters......Page 206
YarraCreek, KingIsland,  Tasmania–MIS \r5......Page 207
Spring Creek, Western Victoria–\rLastGlacial?......Page 208
CaledoniaFen, Great Dividing Range,  Victoria–MIS 3......Page 210
Pulbeena Swamp, Northwestern  Tasmania–MIS \r3......Page 211
Pipe Clay Lagoon, Eastern Tasmania–MIS 3/2 Boundary......Page 212
References......Page 213
Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e)......Page 215
Brørup Interstadial (MIS 5c)......Page 216
Middle Weichselian (MIS 3)......Page 217
Lateglacial Period......Page 218
References......Page 220
Introduction......Page 222
Fossil Sites......Page 223
Hydrophilidae......Page 228
Histeridae......Page 229
Staphylinidae......Page 230
Geotrupidae......Page 231
Trogossitidae......Page 232
Curculionidae......Page 233
Nojiri-Ko Insect Fauna......Page 234
Biogeography......Page 236
References......Page 237
The Landscape of Southern Chile......Page 239
The Existing Beetle Fauna......Page 240
Chilean Lake Region......Page 242
Chilean Channels......Page 245
Biogeographic Considerations......Page 246
The Younger Dryas Conundrum......Page 247
References......Page 248
Research in Eastern North America......Page 249
Paleoenvironments of Central and EasternNorth America during the Last Glaciation......Page 252
Research in Western North America......Page 253
Research in Eastern Beringia......Page 257
References......Page 262
Modern Fauna......Page 264
The penultimate interglaciation (MIS 7)......Page 265
The Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2)......Page 266
Method development......Page 267
Climate variables for reconstruction......Page 268
Lyndon Stream......Page 269
Awatere Valley......Page 270
Where Are All the Fossil Carabids?......Page 271
Extinction/Local Extinction......Page 272
References......Page 273
Preservation, Abundance and CollectingFossil Beetles in the Siberian Arctic......Page 275
Geological Background of the LatePleistocene Beetle Record in Northern Asia......Page 276
Peculiar Features of Fossil Beetleassemblages in Northeastern Asia......Page 281
The Late Pleistocene Beetle Faunas ofCertain Periods and Areas......Page 284
Late Weichselian insect assemblages......Page 287
Early Weichselian insect assemblages......Page 293
‘Last Interglacial’ insect assemblages......Page 294
References......Page 295
Postglacial Europe......Page 297
The Onset of the Holocene: Beetles at the Younger Dryas–Preboreal Transition......Page 298
Climatic Indications from Coleoptera during the Holocene......Page 299
Other Consequences of Human Action......Page 301
Holocene History of the Beetle Fauna of Mediterranean Mountains......Page 302
References......Page 304
Introduction......Page 306
Late Pleistocene-Holocene Transition......Page 310
Environmental Archeology Studies......Page 311
Studies in the Rocky Mountains......Page 312
Biogeography of the Rocky Mountain Beetle Fauna......Page 313
References......Page 316
Concepts in Stable Isotope Geochemistry......Page 318
Biogenic Carbonates......Page 319
References......Page 320
Oxygen Isotopes......Page 322
Radiocarbon......Page 325
Paleoclimate Inferred from O Isotope Records in Speleothems......Page 326
Delta 18Oct......Page 327
Carbon Isotopes......Page 329
References......Page 331
Introduction......Page 333
Permafrost and the Active Layer......Page 334
Near-Surface Ground Ice......Page 335
Disturbances to Permafrost......Page 336
Thermokarst Lakes......Page 337
Retrogressive Thaw Slumps......Page 339
Sedimentary Record......Page 340
References......Page 341
Introduction......Page 343
Nitrogen......Page 344
Chronological Resolution of Skeletal Tissues......Page 345
Development of C4 biomes during the late Quaternary......Page 346
Subsistence Patterns of Ancient Hominids......Page 347
Paleodiet of Ancient Bears......Page 348
Perspectives......Page 349
References......Page 350
Equilibrium Precipitation......Page 352
Micro-sampling Techniques......Page 353
Lampsilis sp. - Huron River, Michigan......Page 355
Pyganodon lacustris - Glovers Pond, New Jersey......Page 356
Corbicula fluminea - Indonesia......Page 358
Calcareous Algae and Aquatic Plants......Page 360
Fish Otoliths......Page 361
Conclusions......Page 364
References......Page 365
Introduction......Page 367
Isotopic Fractionation by Trees......Page 368
Interpreting Stable Isotopes from Tree Rings......Page 370
Stable Isotopes in Peat Profiles......Page 372
Preparation of Pollen Samples......Page 373
References......Page 374
Introduction......Page 376
Temperature effects......Page 378
Delta18O composition of precipitation (Delta18Op)......Page 379
The Carbon-Isotopic Composition of Surficial Meteoric Carbonates......Page 380
Soil Carbonate Formation and the Soil Diffusion Model......Page 381
Devils Hole......Page 382
Delta18O record......Page 384
Delta13C record......Page 385
References......Page 387
Sampling of Lacustrine Sediments......Page 389
Carbonate Precipitation in Mid- to High-Latitude, Hard-Water Lakes......Page 390
Isotopic Composition of Lacustrine Carbonate......Page 391
Oxygen-Isotope Composition of Lake Water and Its Relation to Climate and Local Hydrology......Page 392
Oxygen-Isotope Temperature Calculations......Page 394
Summary and Conclusions......Page 395
References......Page 396
Classification......Page 398
Fossil Morphology......Page 399
Lake ontogeny......Page 401
Acidification......Page 402
Lake levels......Page 403
References......Page 404
Chironomid Records of Past Environmental Change in Africa......Page 405
Qualitative Inferences Using the Indicator-Species Approach......Page 410
Development of Quantitative Inference Models......Page 411
Taxonomy and Biogeography of African Chironomidae......Page 412
Glossary......Page 413
References......Page 414
Chironomids as Qualitative Indicators of Climate Change in the Late Pleistocene......Page 416
Chironomids as Quantitative Indicators of Climate Change in the Late Pleistocene......Page 420
Conclusions......Page 426
References......Page 428
Reconstructions of Lake Ontogeny......Page 430
Effects of Pollution on Lake Ecosystems and Reconstruction of Water Quality......Page 431
Chironomid-Based Summer Temperature Reconstruction......Page 432
Future Developments......Page 436
References......Page 437
Australia......Page 439
New Zealand......Page 440
Paleoclimatic reconstructions......Page 443
Current Chironomid Investigations......Page 446
Chironomid-Temperature Inference Models......Page 447
References......Page 448
Synthesis of TCN applications......Page 451
References......Page 453
3He from Fe/Ti-oxide minerals and garnet......Page 454
10Be from Quartz, Calcite, and Sanidine......Page 455
14C from olivine......Page 457
Geomagnetic Variation and TCN Production......Page 458
Outlook......Page 459
References......Page 460
Relevant Website......Page 461
Introduction......Page 462
Cosmic Radiation: The Omnipresent Energetic Nuclear Radiation......Page 464
Primary Galactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) Energy Spectra and its Modulation by Solar Plasma......Page 465
Solar Cosmic Ray (SCR) Energy Spectra......Page 467
Development of the Secondary Particles of the Cosmic Radiation in the Earth’s Atmosphere......Page 468
Nuclear Disintegration Rates in the Atmosphere......Page 472
Nuclear Disintegration Rates in the Upper Lithosphere......Page 473
Slow Negative Muons......Page 474
Rates of Production of Nuclides at Different Altitudes in the Atmosphere and at Depths in the Lithosphere......Page 475
Rates of Production of Nuclides in Landforms Exposed at Different Altitudes in the Atmosphere and Lithosphere......Page 476
Conclusions......Page 477
References......Page 478
Introduction......Page 480
Dating Rocks and Sediment with Cosmogenic Nuclides......Page 481
Glacial Landscapes......Page 483
Alluvial and Lacustrine Systems......Page 484
Ancient Landscapes......Page 486
References......Page 487
Cosmogenic Nuclide Buildup and Decay......Page 490
Determining Erosion Rates......Page 491
Example 1: Erosion Rates Beneath a Soil Cover-The Soil Production Function......Page 492
The influence of tectonics......Page 493
Using caves to learn about river incision rates......Page 494
Additional Applications......Page 495
References......Page 496
Ingrowth of a Radionuclide......Page 498
U-Series Methods......Page 499
K-Ar Dating......Page 500
Amino Acid Racemization......Page 501
Qualitative and Comparative Methods......Page 502
References......Page 503
Relevant Website......Page 504
Origins and History......Page 505
Tree-ring formation......Page 506
The Uniformitarian Principle......Page 507
The Principle of Aggregate Tree Growth......Page 508
The Principle of Crossdating......Page 509
References......Page 510
DENDROCLIMATOLOGY......Page 512
Chronology Development......Page 513
Historical Development......Page 514
Single Site Reconstructions......Page 515
Tree-Ring Networks......Page 517
Climate-Related Reconstructions......Page 519
Conclusions......Page 520
References......Page 521
The Structure of the Diatom Frustule......Page 524
Features of the Valve......Page 525
Lifecycles and Life Form......Page 526
Planktonic diatoms......Page 527
Biogeography and Endemism......Page 529
Enumerating Diatoms......Page 530
See also......Page 532
Dissolution and Accumulation......Page 533
Analytical Considerations......Page 534
Temperature......Page 535
Changes in the Oxygen-Isotope Composition of the Host Water......Page 538
References......Page 541
Introduction......Page 543
Diatom Concentrations and Accumulation Rates......Page 544
Ecological and Habitat Classification - Qualitative Approaches......Page 545
Toward More Objective Assessment......Page 546
Estimating Parameter Values Using Diatoms......Page 549
Evaluation of the Reconstruction......Page 552
Conclusions......Page 554
References......Page 555
Introduction......Page 557
Diatomite Formation......Page 558
Diatomite Distributions and Age......Page 559
Ancient uses of diatomites......Page 561
Diatomites in environmental science......Page 562
References......Page 563
Salinity Classification of Diatoms......Page 565
Quantitative Approaches for Salinity Reconstruction......Page 566
Diatom Preservation in Saline Lakes......Page 567
Quaternary Climate Variation at Orbital and Millennial Timescales......Page 568
Late-Glacial and Holocene Climate Change......Page 569
Conclusions......Page 572
References......Page 573
Introduction......Page 575
Site Environment......Page 576
Diatom Analysis of Artifacts and Ancient Building Materials......Page 577
Waterfronts......Page 578
Other Archeological Contexts and Forensic Archeology......Page 580
References......Page 581
Applications of Quaternary Antarctic Diatoms......Page 582
Biogeography, Past Sea-Surface Temperatures and Sea-Ice Patterns......Page 584
Past Sea-Surface Temperatures and Sea-Ice Patterns......Page 585
Diatom Biostratigraphy......Page 589
Nonmarine Antarctic Waters: Freshwater Diatoms......Page 590
Abbreviations......Page 591
References......Page 592
Varves and Diatoms-Ideal Objects for Paleoecological Studies......Page 594
Friedrich Nipkow-Splendid Pioneer......Page 595
Methods of Analyzing Diatom Microstratigraphy......Page 597
Human Impact and Its Relaxation......Page 598
Inferences on Past Climatic Changes......Page 599
References......Page 600
Introduction......Page 602
Diatoms as Paleoenvironmental Proxies......Page 604
Lake Baikal......Page 605
Lake Titicaca......Page 607
Lake Victoria......Page 609
References......Page 610
Relevant Websites\r......Page 611
Historical Perspective......Page 612
Sites of Accumulation of Quaternary Laminated Diatom Ooze......Page 614
Enclosed and Semi-enclosed Seas......Page 615
Continental Shelf Basins......Page 616
Centennial- to Orbital-Scale Diatom Records......Page 619
Presence or Absence of Diatom-Rich Laminations: Oceanographic Frontal Zones......Page 620
References......Page 621
Introduction......Page 623
Paleoceanography......Page 624
Mid-Pleistocene transition......Page 625
Last glacial period and Heinrich layers......Page 626
North Atlantic and the Nordic Seas......Page 627
Portuguese Margin......Page 628
Holocene......Page 629
References......Page 631
Introduction......Page 633
Diatom Habitats......Page 634
Seasonal Fluxes of Diatoms in Time-Series Sediment Traps......Page 635
Sea Surface Temperature Reconstruction......Page 636
Datum Levels, Evolving Lineages, and Evolutionary Processes......Page 637
Glacial-Interglacial Cycles......Page 640
Milankovitch Cyclicity......Page 641
Dansgaard-Oeschger Cycles and Bond Cycles......Page 642
The Onset of Deglaciation from the Late Glacial to the Holocene......Page 643
Holocene Marine Environments and Climate Changes......Page 645
Climatic Deterioration and Cultural Changes......Page 646
Predicting Climate Changes......Page 648
References......Page 650
Other Dunes and Dune Fields......Page 656
Types......Page 658
Europe and Russia......Page 659
North America......Page 660
North America......Page 661
Paleoenvironmental Significance and Future Directions......Page 662
See also......Page 663
References......Page 664
Introduction......Page 665
Introduction......Page 666
Dune Types in China......Page 667
Age of Desert Dunes......Page 669
Relations of Desert Dunes to Loess Deposits......Page 670
Former extent of deserts during the Last Glacial Maximum......Page 671
Former extent of deserts during the Holocene optimum......Page 672
Central Asia......Page 673
South America......Page 674
Introduction......Page 675
Dune Origins in North America......Page 676
Dune Ages in North America......Page 678
Paleoclimatic Significance of Dunes in North America......Page 679
Summary......Page 681
References......Page 682
Low Latitudes......Page 685
Sahara Desert......Page 686
Kalahari Desert......Page 691
Arabian Deserts......Page 692
Thar Desert......Page 695
South America......Page 696
Conclusions......Page 697
References......Page 700
Introduction......Page 702
Interpretation of the Data......Page 703
Quaternary records from the North Pacific......Page 704
Cenozoic records of atmospheric circulation and continental climate......Page 705
Summary......Page 706
References......Page 707
Introduction......Page 710
Age Equation......Page 711
Prerequisite Conditions for FT Geochronology......Page 712
General Considerations......Page 713
Introduction......Page 715
Track-Size Correction Methods......Page 717
Comparison of Glass FT Ages Corrected by the Diameter and Plateau Methods......Page 718
Accuracy and Precision of Glass FT Ages......Page 719
Zircon FT Method......Page 720
New Zealand......Page 723
Introduction......Page 725
Toba......Page 726
Concluding Statements......Page 727
References......Page 728
Introduction......Page 732
Channel-bar deposits......Page 733
Channel-fill deposits......Page 734
Natural-levee sediments......Page 735
Crevasse-channel and crevasse-splay sediments......Page 736
Flood-basin sediments......Page 737
Fluvial Channel Patterns......Page 738
Fluvial records from eroding continental interiors......Page 739
Fluvial records from subsiding continental margins......Page 742
Summary......Page 744
References......Page 745
Modes of Response to Allogenic Forcing......Page 746
Recognizing Fluvial Incision......Page 747
Case Studies......Page 749
Pleistocene-Holocene Transition......Page 750
Holocene Climate Forcing......Page 751
References......Page 753
Types of Fluvial Terraces and Terrace Terminology......Page 755
Causes and Processes of Fluvial Terrace Formation......Page 756
Tectonically-Driven Terrace Formation......Page 757
Long-Term Incision and Strath Formation, Tectonically Active Plate Margins......Page 758
Long- and Short-Term Incision and Strath Formation, North American Passive Plate Margin......Page 760
Cycles of Aggradation and Degradation in Arroyos of the Semiarid American Southwest......Page 762
Conclusions......Page 763
References......Page 764
History of Delta Research......Page 766
Delta Sediments, Morphology, and Morphodynamics......Page 769
Influence of Climate on Deltas......Page 773
Ganges-Brahmaputra river delta......Page 774
Modeling studies......Page 775
References......Page 777
Further Reading......Page 778
Secular Variation......Page 779
Geomagnetic Excursions......Page 780
Using Magnetic Reversals for Dating Within the Quaternary......Page 781
References......Page 782
Land-Surface Biophysics......Page 783
Anaerobic decomposition......Page 784
\'\rGreen’ Sahara......Page 785
Northern treeline dynamics......Page 786
Historical land cover changes......Page 787
Terrestrial CO2 feedback......Page 788
The Last Interglacial and Glacial Inception......Page 789
See also......Page 790
References......Page 791
Effects of AtmosphericDust......Page 792
Atmospheric Dust......Page 793
Dust Measurements......Page 794
Models of the Dust Cycle......Page 796
Particle Properties......Page 797
Direct Effect......Page 798
Semidirect and Indirect Effects......Page 799
Other Effects......Page 800
References......Page 801
What is the Thermohaline Circulation?......Page 803
Some Observational Data......Page 805
What Drives the THC?......Page 806
Nonlinear Behavior of the THC......Page 809
The Role of the THC in Quaternary Climate Changes......Page 810
The Future of the THC......Page 812
References......Page 813
Solar Variability......Page 815
Volcanism......Page 816
Proxy Data......Page 817
Model/Data Comparisons......Page 818
References......Page 821
Ice-Sheet and Glacier Beds......Page 822
Subglacial Landform-Sediment Associations......Page 824
Cross-Cutting Lineations and Ice-Sheet Dynamics......Page 825
Temperate Glacier Margins......Page 826
Subpolar Glacier Margins......Page 828
Subaquatic Glacial Depositional Systems......Page 829
Stratigraphic Architecture......Page 830
Continental Shelves......Page 831
Low-Relief Mountain Environments......Page 832
High-Relief Mountain Environments......Page 833
References......Page 834
Push and Squeeze Moraines......Page 838
Dump Moraines and Ice-marginal Aprons......Page 839
Laterofrontal Fans and Ramps......Page 842
Medial Moraines......Page 843
Hummocky Moraine and Controlled Moraine......Page 844
Morainal Banks and Coalescent Subaqueous Fans......Page 846
Ice-shelf Moraines......Page 847
References......Page 848
Quaternary Vulcanism, Subglacial Landforms......Page 851
Subglacial Volcanic Landforms......Page 852
Mafic Tuyas......Page 853
Pillow Mounds, Ridges, and Sheets......Page 858
Tephra Mounds and Ridges......Page 859
Subglacial Sheet-like Sequences......Page 861
Influence of Glacier Thermal Regime on Subglacial Volcanic Landforms......Page 862
References......Page 864
Evidence of Twentieth-Century Glacier Recession......Page 866
Modern Glacier Recession and Geomorphology......Page 868
Late Pleistocene Glacier Recession......Page 870
Ice Marginal Stagnation Along the Southern Margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet......Page 872
Estimated Rates of Glacier Recession During the Late Pleistocene......Page 874
References......Page 875
Active Temperate Glacial Landsystem......Page 877
Glaciated Valley Landsystem......Page 878
Plateau Icefield Landsystem......Page 879
Ice Stream Landsystem......Page 880
Glaciated Valley Landsystem......Page 882
Plateau Icefield Landsystem......Page 883
References......Page 885
Overview......Page 888
Recognition of Pleistocene Glacial Lake Outbursts......Page 889
Glacial Lake Outburst Erosional Landforms......Page 890
Hydrologic Characteristics of Pleistocene Glacial Lake Outbursts......Page 891
Landform Associations......Page 892
Origin......Page 895
Occurrence and Origin......Page 897
Drumlins, Rogens, Hummocky Terrain, and Megaflutes......Page 898
References......Page 900
Glacitectonic Processes......Page 902
Composite Ridges and Thrust-Block Moraines......Page 905
Hill-Hole Pairs......Page 906
Cupola Hills......Page 907
References......Page 908
Introduction......Page 910
Glacial Cirques......Page 911
Cross-Profiles......Page 915
Long Profiles......Page 916
Rock Basins and Fjords......Page 918
Dating and Rates......Page 920
Landscapes of Glacial Erosion......Page 923
References......Page 924
Abrasion......Page 925
Fracture......Page 928
Plucking/entrainment......Page 929
Friction Cracks......Page 930
p-forms......Page 931
Polish......Page 932
Whalebacks and Rock Drumlins......Page 933
Applications in Quaternary Science......Page 934
References......Page 935
Growth and Decay......Page 937
Glacier Mass Balance, Equilibrium Line Altitudes, and the Growth and Decay of Terrestrial Ice Sheets......Page 938
Sea Level and the Growth and Decay of Marine-Based Ice Sheets......Page 939
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels and Ice Sheet Changes......Page 940
Process Complexity and Ice Sheet Fluctuations......Page 942
References......Page 944
Importance of the Extent of Past Glaciers and Ice Sheets......Page 945
Sediment record......Page 946
Geomorphological features......Page 947
Eastern Siberia......Page 953
Consolidation measurements......Page 954
See also......Page 955
References......Page 956
Paleo ELAs......Page 957
Relationships between Precipitation-Temperature and the ELA......Page 960
Maximum Elevation of Lateral Moraines......Page 961
Toe-to-Summit Altitude Method......Page 962
Balance Ratio Method......Page 963
Conclusions......Page 964
Appendix: Nomenclature Related to Glacier Mass Balance and Equilibrium Line Altitudes......Page 965
References......Page 966
Trimlines and Palaeonunataks......Page 968
Hypotheses of Trimline Formation......Page 970
Trimline Geomorphology......Page 972
Relative Age Dating of Bedrock Outcrops......Page 973
Surface Exposure Dating Using Cosmogenic Isotopes......Page 975
Glaciological Considerations......Page 976
Ice Sheet and Glacier Reconstruction......Page 977
References......Page 979
Shape......Page 980
Roundness......Page 981
Weathering......Page 982
Conclusion......Page 983
References......Page 985
Introduction: Glacifluvial Systems......Page 986
Glacifluvial Landforms of Deposition......Page 987
Unconfined sandar......Page 988
Confined sandar......Page 989
Proglacial subaerial mesoforms......Page 990
Expansion bars......Page 991
Eddy bars......Page 992
Eskers......Page 993
Links to Other Systems......Page 995
References......Page 996
The Meaning of Facies......Page 998
Diamict versus Till......Page 999
Glacial Depositional Systems: Facies Models and Facies Asociations......Page 1001
Subglacial Depositional System......Page 1003
Supraglacial Depositional System......Page 1005
Glaciomarine Depositional System......Page 1006
Glacially Influenced Marine Depositional System......Page 1008
References......Page 1009
Introduction......Page 1011
Grounding-Line Fans......Page 1012
Morainal Banks......Page 1013
Deltas......Page 1014
Grounding-Zone Wedges......Page 1016
Glacimarine Sedimentation on High-Latitude Continental Margins......Page 1017
Case Study of IRD in the Deep-Sea: The Heinrich Layers......Page 1018
Mechanisms and Controls......Page 1021
References......Page 1023
Sampling and Preparation of Thin Sections......Page 1025
Textural Analysis......Page 1026
Structural Analysis......Page 1027
Microfabric Analysis......Page 1029
Plasmic Fabric Analysis......Page 1031
Future Developments in Microscopic Studies......Page 1033
References......Page 1034
Unlithified tills......Page 1035
Data Presentation......Page 1036
Statistical Analysis......Page 1037
Fabric analysis and Till Formation......Page 1038
Concluding Remarks......Page 1039
References......Page 1040
Subglacial Processes......Page 1041
Subglacial Melt-Out......Page 1042
Lee-Side Cavity Filling......Page 1043
Subglacial Ploughing......Page 1044
Subglacial Till Types......Page 1045
Subglacial Melt-Out Till......Page 1046
Subglacial Sliding Bed Deposits......Page 1047
Comminution Till......Page 1048
Deformation Till......Page 1049
Lee-Side Cavity-Fill Deposits......Page 1051
Subglacial Till Nomenclature......Page 1052
References......Page 1053
Indicator Fans and Till Dispersal Indicators......Page 1058
References......Page 1061
Introduction......Page 1062
Reference Chronologies......Page 1063
Process-Event-Response......Page 1064
Succession......Page 1065
Reaction wood......Page 1066
Callous tissue......Page 1067
Growth rings in roots......Page 1068
Future Trends......Page 1069
References......Page 1070
Introduction......Page 1072
Dendroglaciological Methodologies......Page 1073
Oldest Tree......Page 1074
Ecesis Interval......Page 1075
Future Directions......Page 1077
References......Page 1078
History of Ideas......Page 1079
Glacial versus Interglacial Worlds......Page 1081
Conceptual Framework......Page 1082
Continental Interior Systems......Page 1084
Continental Margin Systems......Page 1089
Conclusion......Page 1092
References......Page 1093
Introduction......Page 1095
Plateau Uplift and Climate Change......Page 1096
Complexities of the Cenozoic Cooling and Tectonics......Page 1098
General Circulation Modeling......Page 1099
References......Page 1100
Past Climates at Astronomical Timescales......Page 1102
Milankovitch Renaissance......Page 1103
Long-Term Variations of the Astronomical Parameters......Page 1104
Modeling Past and Future Climates......Page 1105
References......Page 1107
Overview......Page 1108
Europe (Table 1)......Page 1109
South America/Antarctica (Table 3)......Page 1112
Australasia (Table 3)......Page 1115
References......Page 1116
Antarctica......Page 1117
South America......Page 1118
North America......Page 1119
The Scandinavian Ice Sheet......Page 1120
References......Page 1121
Northwest Europe......Page 1123
Elsterian Glaciation (Elsterian Stage)......Page 1124
Holsteinian Stage and Wacken/Dömnitz Substage (Saalian Stage)......Page 1125
Older Saalian Glaciation......Page 1126
Middle Saalian Glaciation......Page 1127
Alpine Glaciations......Page 1128
References......Page 1130
Correlation of Glaciated Landscapes......Page 1131
Dating Tools......Page 1133
References......Page 1136
Introduction......Page 1139
Middle Pleistocene Glaciations in Antarctica and the Sub-Antarctic Islands......Page 1140
Middle Pleistocene Glaciations in New Zealand and Tasmania......Page 1141
Middle Pleistocene Glaciations in South America......Page 1142
References......Page 1144
Introduction......Page 1146
Sea-Level History......Page 1148
Rapid Onset of Glaciation During MIS 5......Page 1149
Early Wisconsin/Zyryan Glaciation (Marine Isotope Stage 4)......Page 1150
Middle Wisconsin/Karaginsky Interstadial......Page 1151
Late Wisconsin/Sartan Glaciation......Page 1152
References......Page 1154
Early Quaternary of Tasmania......Page 1156
Early Quaternary of New Zealand......Page 1158
Middle Quaternary of New Zealand......Page 1159
Late Quaternary of Australia......Page 1160
Late Quaternary of New Zealand......Page 1163
References......Page 1165
Onset of Antarctic Glaciation......Page 1167
Pliocene and the Transition to the Pleistocene......Page 1168
Last Glacial Cycle and the LGM in Antarctica......Page 1169
Deglaciation of the Shelf and Near-Shore Areas......Page 1170
Deglaciation and Holocene Development of Glaciation and Climate in East Antarctica......Page 1171
Deglaciation and Grounding Line Retreat......Page 1172
Summary of the Late Quaternary Glacial History of Antarctica......Page 1173
See also......Page 1174
References......Page 1175
Eemian Stage Interglacial......Page 1176
Russia......Page 1177
Scandinavian Ice Sheet......Page 1180
British/Irish Ice Sheet......Page 1183
The Alps......Page 1184
References......Page 1185
Late Quaternary in North\rAmerica\r......Page 1187
Early Wisconsinan-MIS Stage 4......Page 1189
Late Wisconsinan-MIS 2/1......Page 1190
References......Page 1192
Pre-Last Glacial Maximum......Page 1193
Pre-Last Glacial Maximum......Page 1194
Last Glacial Maximum......Page 1195
Last Glacial Maximum......Page 1196
Lateglacial......Page 1197
Lateglacial......Page 1198
Final Remarks......Page 1199
References......Page 1201
Introduction......Page 1202
Introduction......Page 1203
Himalaya and Transhimalaya......Page 1204
Tien Shan and Altai Mountains......Page 1206
Conclusion......Page 1207
References......Page 1209
Late Glacial Events in Northwest Europe......Page 1211
References......Page 1217
Moraine-Ridge Stratigraphy......Page 1218
Glaciolacustrine and Glaciofluvial Stratigraphy......Page 1219
Scandinavia......Page 1223
Alps......Page 1224
European Neoglacial Events and Climatic Forcing Factors......Page 1226
References......Page 1228
Concept of Neoglaciation......Page 1230
Definition of Neoglaciation......Page 1231
Establishing Neoglacial Chronologies......Page 1232
Brooks Range......Page 1233
Southern Alaska and Yukon Territory......Page 1234
Northern and Central Andes......Page 1235
Temporal Pattern of Glacier Variations......Page 1236
Hemispheric Contrasts in Relative Glacier Extent......Page 1237
References......Page 1238
Ice-Core Basics......Page 1240
Ice-Core Chronology......Page 1241
Stable Isotopes......Page 1242
N, O Ar, and other Noble Gases......Page 1243
Glaciochemistry......Page 1244
Insoluble Particles......Page 1245
Glacial-Interglacial Cycles......Page 1246
Abrupt change, the last ice age, and the Holocene......Page 1247
Recent and Anthropogenic Change......Page 1248
References......Page 1249
Introduction......Page 1252
The Vostok Ice Core......Page 1255
Ice Cores from Greenland......Page 1257
Temperate Mountain Glaciers......Page 1258
Metabolic and Evolutionary Potential of Ice-Bound Microorganisms......Page 1259
Acknowledgments......Page 1261
References......Page 1262
General Concepts......Page 1264
Characteristics of Profiles......Page 1265
The Inverse Problem......Page 1266
Specific Strategies......Page 1267
Greenland......Page 1268
References......Page 1269
Layer Counting......Page 1271
Rheology of Ice......Page 1272
Past Accumulation Rate Estimates......Page 1273
85Kr, 39A, 81Kr......Page 1274
Earth Orbital Variations......Page 1275
Abrupt Climate Variations......Page 1276
Age Scale for the Air Occluded in the Ice......Page 1277
References......Page 1278
Introduction......Page 1280
The Last Millennium......Page 1281
The Holocene......Page 1282
The Transition from the Last Glacial Epoch to the Holocene......Page 1283
CO2 Records Over Several Glacial Cycles......Page 1284
Analytical Methods......Page 1285
Reliability of CO2 Data from Ice Cores......Page 1286
References......Page 1287
The Electrical Conductivity Method......Page 1289
Dielectric Profiling......Page 1290
Uses of Electrical Methods......Page 1291
References......Page 1292
Introduction......Page 1293
Glaciochemical Background and Measurement......Page 1294
Sea-Salt Aerosol......Page 1295
Terrestrial Dust......Page 1296
Volcanic Aerosols......Page 1297
Biogenic Emissions......Page 1298
References......Page 1299
Current Understanding of the CH4 Cycle......Page 1301
Reconstructing CH4 Levels during the Quaternary......Page 1302
The Last Millennium......Page 1303
The Holocene......Page 1304
The Last Glaciation and Deglaciation......Page 1305
The Last Six Glacial-Interglacial Cycles......Page 1306
Analytical Techniques......Page 1307
References......Page 1308
Aerosols and Microparticles......Page 1310
Fingerprinting Microparticle Provenance in Central Greenland and East Antarctica......Page 1311
Evaluation of Heavy Metal Pollution in Central Greenland......Page 1312
References......Page 1314
Standard Notation and Measurements......Page 1316
Basic Theory and Observations of Modern Isotope Distribution in Polar Regions......Page 1317
Reliability of the Isotope Thermometer......Page 1318
Independent Tests of the Isotope Thermometer......Page 1319
Ice-Core Isotopic Stratigraphy......Page 1321
References......Page 1322
Meteorology of Equatorial East Africa......Page 1324
The Ice Core Records......Page 1325
The African Humid Period......Page 1326
Middle Holocene......Page 1327
Recent Retreat of East African Glaciers......Page 1328
References......Page 1329
Asian versus Polar Ice-Core Records......Page 1330
Deep Asian Ice Cores......Page 1333
Final Comments......Page 1335
References......Page 1336
The History of Ice-Core Drilling in the Andes......Page 1338
The Physical and Meteorological Setting of Tropical South America......Page 1340
Stable isotopic ratios of oxygen (delta18O) in Andean ice cores......Page 1341
Millennial-scale variations......Page 1342
The ‘Little Ice Age’......Page 1344
Future Priorities......Page 1345
References......Page 1346
Introduction......Page 1348
Modern Precipitation Isotopic Composition and the Isotopic Paleothermometer......Page 1349
Last 200 Years......Page 1350
Holocene......Page 1351
Millenial Climate Variability in Antarctica......Page 1352
Conclusions and Perspectives......Page 1354
References......Page 1355
The Early Isotope Work......Page 1357
The Climate Signal in Seasonal delta18O......Page 1358
Timescales for Deep Ice Cores......Page 1360
The Holocene......Page 1362
The Eemian......Page 1363
References......Page 1364
Introduction......Page 1366
Techniques......Page 1367
Results of Comparing Greenlandic and Antarctic Ice-Core Records on Common Chronologies......Page 1369
Statistics of Interpolar Comparisons......Page 1371
Abbreviations......Page 1372
References......Page 1373
Ice-Margin Sites......Page 1375
Antarctic Sites......Page 1376
Characteristics of Ice-Margin Sampling Sites......Page 1377
Trace Elements......Page 1381
Sampling Procedure......Page 1382
The Pakitsoq Ice-Margin Sampling Site......Page 1383
Ice-Sheet Dynamics......Page 1385
Outlook......Page 1387
References......Page 1388
Controls on Isotopic Composition of Ice-Core Air......Page 1390
Interpretation of Observed Thermal Diffusion Trace......Page 1391
References......Page 1393
Introduction......Page 1395
Early Ice-Core Projects......Page 1396
Recent Ice-Core Projects......Page 1397
References......Page 1398
Dynamics of the Greenland Ice Sheet......Page 1400
Ice Crystals and Deformation......Page 1401
Physical Characteristics......Page 1402
Accumulation of Snow......Page 1403
Ice Flow......Page 1404
Visible Stratigraphy in Ice Cores......Page 1405
History of the Greenland Ice Sheet......Page 1406
References......Page 1407
Overview......Page 1408
Overview......Page 1409
Geographic and Geologic Setting......Page 1410
Theories of Marine-Based Ice Sheet Collapse......Page 1411
Basal Stress......Page 1412
Important Timescales......Page 1413
Millennial Timescale......Page 1414
Daily......Page 1416
References......Page 1417
Dynamics of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet......Page 1419
References......Page 1425
Principles of Radiometric Dating......Page 1426
Potassium-Argon Dating......Page 1427
Argon-Argon Dating......Page 1428
Applications of K-Ar and Ar-Ar dating in Quaternary Science......Page 1429
References......Page 1430
Introduction......Page 1431
Background......Page 1433
Site Selection......Page 1434
Geomorphic Archives......Page 1436
Freshwater Clastic Lake Sediments......Page 1438
Diatoms......Page 1440
Freshwater Carbonate Lake Sediments......Page 1441
Saline Lakes......Page 1442
Core Recovery and Sediment Classification......Page 1443
Oxygen-Isotope Analysis......Page 1444
Ostrocods......Page 1445
Conclusions......Page 1446
References......Page 1447
Introduction......Page 1449
A Green Sahara......Page 1450
Late Quaternary lake dynamics in eastern and southern Africa......Page 1452
High-Frequency (Centennial-Scale) Dynamics in African Lakes......Page 1453
Lake-Level Change and Evolution: The Cichlid Fishes of African Lakes......Page 1454
References......Page 1455
From Closed to Overflowing Lakes......Page 1457
Basis of Lake-Level Reconstruction......Page 1459
From Reconstruction to Determining Causes of Lake-Level Change......Page 1460
Middle East......Page 1461
Mid-Holocene......Page 1463
LGM......Page 1464
Last Interstadial......Page 1465
Lake-Level Change and Paleoclimate modeling......Page 1466
6kyr BP......Page 1467
Future Study......Page 1470
References......Page 1471
Introduction......Page 1474
Western Victorian Volcanic Lakes......Page 1475
Murray-Darling Basin......Page 1476
Lake Eyre Basin......Page 1477
Other Monsoon-Fed Terminal Lakes......Page 1478
Paleoclimatic Summary......Page 1479
References......Page 1480
Introduction......Page 1482
Lake Water Balance......Page 1483
Soil Moisture Balance......Page 1484
Simulation Analysis......Page 1485
Simulation Analyses......Page 1486
Lake Bysjön......Page 1487
Sensitivity Analyses......Page 1488
References......Page 1489
Introduction......Page 1491
Central United States and Adjacent Canada......Page 1493
Great Lakes Region......Page 1494
Southeastern United States......Page 1495
Alaska and the Yukon Territory......Page 1496
Climatic Controls on Lake Levels......Page 1497
Summary......Page 1498
References......Page 1499
Background......Page 1501
The central highlands of Mexico......Page 1503
The Yucatan peninsula......Page 1504
Climate and Culture......Page 1505
References......Page 1506
Relevant Websites......Page 1507
Introduction......Page 1508
Study Area and Method of Lake-Level Reconstruction......Page 1509
The Regional Pattern of Holocene Lake-Level Fluctuations......Page 1511
Contrasting Patterns of Hydrological Changes in Europe......Page 1512
Variations in Climatic Variables Reflected by Changes in Lake Level......Page 1513
Toward a Better Understanding of the Forcing Factors......Page 1516
References......Page 1517
Rationale and Assumptions......Page 1519
Relative Dating Using Lichens......Page 1520
Lichen \'Growth Curves’......Page 1521
The \'Traditional’ Approach to Lichenometry......Page 1522
Statistical Approaches to Lichenometry......Page 1523
References......Page 1524
Definition of Loess......Page 1526
Spatial Distribution of Loess......Page 1527
Loess Origins: Processes of Silt Particle Formation......Page 1528
Loess Stratigraphy......Page 1530
Quaternary Paleoenvironmental Information from Loess Sequences......Page 1535
References......Page 1537
Central Asia......Page 1540
References......Page 1550
Loess in China......Page 1552
Loess/Paleosol Stratigraphy......Page 1553
Chronology of Loess and Paleosol Units......Page 1555
Variations in Grain Size and Thickness......Page 1556
Downwind Transport and Deposition......Page 1557
Late Quaternary Loess/Paleosol Record......Page 1558
Glacial/Interglacial Dust/Paleosol Model......Page 1559
The \'Red Clay’ and the Onset of Loess Formation......Page 1560
Erosion of Loess and Loss of Topsoil......Page 1561
Abbreviations......Page 1562
References......Page 1563
Mineralogy of European Loess......Page 1564
Morphology and Particle Size Distribution of European Loess......Page 1565
Loess of Europe: The Origin......Page 1567
Dating Loess in Europe: Geochronology......Page 1568
Variability of Loess Sedimentation within a Single Glacial Period (Last Climatic Cycle) in Western Europe......Page 1569
Geochemistry......Page 1572
Cryoturbation and Evidence of Ice Wedges......Page 1573
Terrestrial Mollusks and Paleozoogeography......Page 1574
European Loess as a Record of the Response of the Continental Environments to North Atlantic Climatic Variability......Page 1575
Summary......Page 1576
References......Page 1578
Distribution and Thickness of Loess Deposits......Page 1581
Stratigraphic Framework and Chronology of Loess Deposits......Page 1582
Sources of Loess and Timing of Deposition......Page 1587
Paleoclimatic Implications......Page 1588
Abbreviations......Page 1589
References......Page 1590
Introduction......Page 1592
Paleosols......Page 1593
Vertebrate Fossil Content......Page 1594
Magnetostratigraphy......Page 1596
The Mountain Valley Loess of Tucumaacuten......Page 1598
Mineralogical Composition......Page 1601
Geochronology......Page 1602
South American Source of Antarctic Dust......Page 1603
References......Page 1604
Mechanism Responsible for Thermoluminescence......Page 1606
Estimating the Equivalent Dose......Page 1607
Determining the Dose Rate......Page 1611
Environments Suitable for TL Dating......Page 1613
Factors That Can Lead to an Inaccurate TL Age......Page 1614
References......Page 1615
The Mechanism Responsible for Optically Stimulated Luminescence......Page 1618
Optical Dating......Page 1619
Multiple-Aliquot Techniques......Page 1621
Single-Aliquot Techniques......Page 1623
Analysis and presentation of equivalent-dose distributions arising from single-aliquot techniques......Page 1625
Environments Suitable for Optical Dating......Page 1628
Factors that can Lead to an Inaccurate Optical Age......Page 1630
References......Page 1631
Relevant Website......Page 1632
Basic Principles......Page 1633
Measurement of the Dose Value......Page 1634
ESR Measurement......Page 1635
Internal Dose Rate......Page 1637
Measurement of Radioactive Elements and Isotopes......Page 1639
Mollusk Shells......Page 1640
Tooth Enamel......Page 1641
References......Page 1643
1517-1537_MID-PLEISTOCENE VERTEBRATE RECORDS Australia......Page 1645
Caveats......Page 1646
Frogs......Page 1654
Crocodiles......Page 1655
Snakes......Page 1656
Birds......Page 1657
Monotremes (Ornithorhynchidae, Tachyglossidae)......Page 1658
Dasyurids (Dasyuridae)......Page 1659
Marsupial lions (Thylacoleonidae)......Page 1661
Kangaroos (Hypsiprymnodontidae, Macropodidae)......Page 1662
Comparison with the Late Pleistocene Record......Page 1663
References......Page 1664
North American Land Mammal Ages......Page 1666
Blancan......Page 1667
Irvingtonian......Page 1668
Non-mammalian vertebrate faunal groups......Page 1669
Broader significance of Irvingtonian biotas......Page 1670
References......Page 1671
Introduction......Page 1673
What are Oribatid Mites?......Page 1674
Where and How Are They Fossilized?......Page 1675
The Applications Era......Page 1676
Sediment Sampling for Oribatid Mites......Page 1677
Fossil mite extraction......Page 1678
Sectors of Application......Page 1679
Biozonation by species acme zones......Page 1680
Biofacies analysis......Page 1681
Proxies of temperature and moisture - lake and bog deposits......Page 1684
Proxies of temperature and moisture - cave deposits......Page 1686
Taphonomic Analysis......Page 1687
General Application - Spring Deposits......Page 1688
References......Page 1690
Some History......Page 1693
Recent Developments......Page 1694
Key Insights from Pollen Analysis......Page 1695
The Way Ahead......Page 1697
See also......Page 1698
References......Page 1699
Naturally occurring substrates......Page 1701
Herbarium collections......Page 1703
Plant Domestication......Page 1704
Extraction of Amplifiable Plant DNA......Page 1705
The \'Postmortem’ Degradation of DNA......Page 1706
Conclusions......Page 1707
References......Page 1708
Sedimentary Charred Particles: Fire History Reconstruction......Page 1709
Charcoal Estimate......Page 1710
Local-Scale Fire Reconstruction......Page 1711
Other Stratigraphic Charcoal Archives......Page 1712
Soil Charcoal: Spatially Precise Fire and Vegetation Reconstructions......Page 1713
Archeological Charcoal: Understanding the Relationship between Prehistoric Man and the Environment......Page 1715
Future Developments for the Use of Charred Particles in Paleoecology......Page 1717
Conclusions......Page 1718
References......Page 1719
Glacial/Interglacial Cycles......Page 1721
Glacial Phase......Page 1722
The Holocene......Page 1723
The Future......Page 1724
Relevant Websites......Page 1725
Oxygen-Isotope Stratigraphy......Page 1726
Proxies......Page 1727
Evolution during the Quaternary......Page 1728
Climate Sensitivity of the North Atlantic Compared to Other Regions......Page 1730
Millennial-Scale Variability during Glacial Times......Page 1732
Postglacial......Page 1734
See also......Page 1735
Relevant Website......Page 1736
Chemical Composition......Page 1737
Biological Origin......Page 1739
Correspondence with Past SSTs......Page 1740
Alterations in the Correspondence between Alkenone Indices and SST......Page 1741
Concluding Remarks......Page 1743
References......Page 1744
Biology and Ecology......Page 1746
From Living to Fossil......Page 1748
Global Ocean Change......Page 1749
Shelf Seas, High Latitude Seas and Glaciations......Page 1750
Sea Level......Page 1752
References......Page 1754
Alkenone Paleothermometry......Page 1756
The TEX86 Paleotemperature Proxy......Page 1758
The HBI Temperature Proxy......Page 1759
The Lipid deltaD Paleosalinity Proxy......Page 1760
References......Page 1761
Biology......Page 1764
Nutrients......Page 1767
Coccolith Production and Accumulation Mechanisms......Page 1769
Reconstruction of Latitudinal Variations and Temperatures......Page 1771
How Do Coccolithophores Affect the Climate System?......Page 1773
Pleistocene Biostratigraphy and Biochronology......Page 1774
Relevant Websites......Page 1776
Introduction......Page 1777
Corals......Page 1778
Sclerosponges......Page 1779
Mollusks......Page 1781
See also......Page 1782
References......Page 1783
Introduction......Page 1784
Ecology of Dinoflagellates......Page 1785
The Taxonomy and General Morphology of Dinoflagellates and Dinocysts......Page 1786
Biogeographical Distribution of Dinocysts......Page 1788
Ecological-Paleoecological Significance of Dinocysts in Sediment......Page 1790
Applications of Marine Dinocysts in Quaternary Sciences......Page 1794
Paleoceanographical Reconstruction......Page 1795
Eutrophication, Productivity, and Upwelling......Page 1796
Conclusion......Page 1797
References......Page 1799
Introduction......Page 1800
Quantitative methods......Page 1802
Valve size......Page 1803
Glacial/interglacial variability......Page 1804
Millennial variability......Page 1805
Monospecific mats......Page 1807
Sea-level variability and other coastal processes......Page 1808
References......Page 1809
Relevant Websites......Page 1810
Background......Page 1811
Living Planktic Foraminifera......Page 1812
Stratigraphic Distribution and Biostratigraphy......Page 1813
Applications to Paleoceanography and Oceanic Paleoclimatology......Page 1814
References......Page 1815
Modern Ecology and Preservation......Page 1816
Water mass boundaries......Page 1818
Biostratigraphy......Page 1819
Paleotemperature estimation......Page 1820
Paleoproductivity estimation......Page 1821
Silicoflagellates......Page 1824
References......Page 1825
Relevant Websites......Page 1826
Theory......Page 1827
Statistically Significant Census Counts and Percent Abundance Data......Page 1828
Classes of Microfossil-Based Paleotemperature Proxy Methods......Page 1829
Imbrie-Kipp Transfer Function Method......Page 1830
Artificial Neural Networks......Page 1831
Potential Problems......Page 1832
References......Page 1833
Introduction......Page 1835
The boron isotope proxy for seawater pH......Page 1836
Deconvolution of the carbonate ion effect (CIE) to infer [CO3]......Page 1837
Carbon isotope fractionation in alkenones to infer aqueous PCO2......Page 1838
Size-normalized shell weights......Page 1839
Foraminiferal Li/Ca......Page 1841
Foraminiferal Cd/Ca......Page 1842
Foraminiferal Zn/Ca......Page 1843
Conclusions......Page 1844
References......Page 1845
Introduction......Page 1847
Dissolved Inorganic Carbon, DIC......Page 1848
Alkalinity, TA......Page 1849
Determining Carbonate Parameters......Page 1850
Thermodynamics......Page 1851
Supralysoclinal Dissolution......Page 1852
Dissolution Proxies......Page 1853
Changes in species composition......Page 1854
Foraminiferal shell weights......Page 1855
Carbonate Budgets and Carbonate Compensation......Page 1856
Glacial-Interglacial Changes in Atmospheric CO2......Page 1857
See also......Page 1858
Relevant Website......Page 1859
Temperature Calibrations of Mg/Ca in Planktonic Foraminifera......Page 1860
Inter- and Intra-Species Variability......Page 1861
Salinity and pH effect......Page 1862
Temperature calibrations of Mg/Ca in benthic foraminifera......Page 1863
Inferring Sea-Water delta18O and Salinity......Page 1864
Temperature Calibrations of Sr/Ca in Corals......Page 1865
Extension rate......Page 1866
References......Page 1867
Paleoceanographic Reconstruction......Page 1869
Cadmium......Page 1872
Zinc......Page 1873
Nitrate Utilization......Page 1874
Denitrification......Page 1875
References......Page 1876
Oxygen Stable Isotopes and the delta-Notation......Page 1878
Cesare Emiliani, the Father of Marine Isotopic Stratigraphy......Page 1879
Continental Ice-Sheet Waxing/Waning and the Global delta18O Signal......Page 1880
Magnetostratigraphy and the lsquoRosetta Stone’ for Quaternary Ice Ages......Page 1881
Astronomical Tuning: The SPECMAP Approach......Page 1882
Oxygen-Isotope Stratigraphy and the Imprint of the Primary Orbital Oscillations......Page 1883
See also......Page 1884
References......Page 1885
Introduction......Page 1887
Processes Controlling Oxygen Isotope Ratios in Seawater......Page 1888
Evaporation......Page 1889
Precipitation and Atmospheric Vapor Transport......Page 1890
Advection and diffusion......Page 1891
Seawater delta18O inferred from measurements on fossil carbonates......Page 1892
Other uses of foraminifer-based delta18O in paleoceanography......Page 1893
\'Direct’ measurement of past seawater......Page 1894
References......Page 1895
What are Radioisotopes?......Page 1896
General Applications of Radioisotopes......Page 1897
Paleoceanographic Applications Based on the Activity of 230Th in Marine Sediments......Page 1899
231Pa/230Th in Atlantic Sediments......Page 1902
Why is the Interpretation of Sediment 231Pa/230Th Different in the Atlantic and the Pacific?......Page 1904
References......Page 1905
Reconstructing Past Salinity Variations (with an Emphasis on the Quaternary)......Page 1907
\'Current’ Methods of Reconstructing Past Salinity......Page 1908
Mg/Ca temperature calibration equations......Page 1912
Secondary effects......Page 1913
Quaternary delta18Owater Variations: An Example from the Tropical Pacific......Page 1914
References......Page 1915
Mineralogy......Page 1917
Geochemical Approaches to Terrigenous Sediment Provenance......Page 1919
Constant Flux Proxies......Page 1921
Grain Size Distributions......Page 1922
Sorting......Page 1923
Terrane Types or Provenance Components......Page 1924
References......Page 1925
Introduction......Page 1927
Ice Volume and Sea-Level Changes......Page 1928
Amplitude of Ice-Volume Changes......Page 1929
Glacial-Interglacial Changes......Page 1930
Thermohaline Switch......Page 1932
Millennial-Scale Dynamics in the Early Pleistocene ?......Page 1933
References......Page 1934
Deep Circulation and the Conveyor Belt......Page 1936
Climate Sensitivity of the North Atlantic Region......Page 1938
Millennial-Scale Variability......Page 1940
The Last Deglaciation......Page 1943
References......Page 1944
Relevant Website......Page 1945
Introduction......Page 1946
Glacial-interglacial changes......Page 1947
Millennial-scale ventilation changes......Page 1950
The Last Glacial Maximum......Page 1952
Millennial-scale variability......Page 1954
Glacial-interglacial changes......Page 1956
Millennial-scale variability......Page 1957
See also......Page 1958
References......Page 1959
Sea-Surface Temperature......Page 1960
Upper Ocean Stratification and Thermocline Depth......Page 1962
Coastal Upwelling......Page 1964
River runoff and precipitation in the tropical Atlantic......Page 1966
Meltwater and ice-rafted detritus (IRD)......Page 1968
Productivity......Page 1970
Thermocline and Central Water Masses......Page 1971
Intermediate- and Deep-Water Masses......Page 1972
See also......Page 1973
References......Page 1974
Introduction......Page 1976
Pre- and Postglacial Changes......Page 1977
Sea-Surface Temperature Changes......Page 1978
Outflows into the Indian Ocean during the Deglaciation......Page 1979
Monsoon Variability......Page 1980
Monsoon Forcing Mechanisms after Deglaciation......Page 1981
Productivity Variations......Page 1982
Conclusions......Page 1983
References......Page 1984
Introduction......Page 1985
SST Variations......Page 1987
Ocean Circulation Variations......Page 1989
References......Page 1992
Introduction......Page 1994
Paleoceanographic Records from the Tropical Pacific Ocean......Page 1995
Paleoceanographic Records from the Western Margin of North America......Page 1996
Paleoceanographic Records from the Eastern Margin of Asia......Page 1999
References......Page 2001
Introduction......Page 2003
General Ocean Circulation......Page 2004
Southern Hemisphere Climate Modes......Page 2005
South American Margin off Mid-Latitude Chile......Page 2006
South American Margin off Northern Chile and Peru......Page 2008
New Zealand/Australia......Page 2009
Open Ocean Records......Page 2010
Orbital Timescales......Page 2011
Millennial-Centennial Timescales......Page 2012
Critical Issues and Directions for Future Research......Page 2013
References......Page 2014
Introduction, Why Study Paleoclimatology?......Page 2015
Some Recent Developments in Paleoclimatology......Page 2016
Organization of the Articles......Page 2018
See also......Page 2019
References......Page 2020
The Hierarchy of Climate System Controls and Responses......Page 2022
The Spectrum of Climate Variability......Page 2023
The Variance Spectrum......Page 2025
Spurious Periodicity......Page 2026
Oscillations......Page 2029
References......Page 2031
Introduction......Page 2033
History of Data-Model Comparisons......Page 2035
Requirements for Data Syntheses for Data-Model Comparison......Page 2036
Requirements for Model Benchmarking......Page 2039
Existing Paleoenvironmental Data sets for Data-Model Comparison......Page 2040
The Mid-Holocene African Monsoon: An Example of Data-Model Comparisons and Benchmarking......Page 2042
References......Page 2045
Relevant Websites\r......Page 2046
Introduction......Page 2047
Complexity......Page 2048
Uncertainties......Page 2049
Boundary Conditions......Page 2050
Equilibration......Page 2051
Stability of the Meridional Overturning Circulation......Page 2053
Glacial-Interglacial Changes in the Carbon Cycle......Page 2054
References......Page 2055
Boundary Conditions......Page 2057
Northern Summer Response: Direct Response to Insolation......Page 2060
Northern Winter Response: the Role of Atmospheric Dynamics......Page 2062
Vegetation Feedbacks......Page 2063
Ocean Circulation Changes......Page 2065
References......Page 2067
Introduction......Page 2069
Types of General Circulation Models......Page 2070
Design of General Circulation Model Experiments......Page 2071
Interhemispheric Asymmetry of Cooling......Page 2072
Monsoons......Page 2073
Meridional Overturning Circulation in the Ocean......Page 2074
References......Page 2075
ENSO......Page 2077
Other Teleconnection Patterns......Page 2079
Reconstruction of ENSO......Page 2080
Regional Paleoclimatic Responses of Past El Nintildeos and Climatic Forcing Mechanisms......Page 2082
References......Page 2083
Proxies: Where Does Our Data Come From?......Page 2085
Continued Utility of Qualitative Approaches......Page 2086
General Concepts......Page 2087
Present is the Key to the Past: Calibrating Proxies......Page 2088
Processes are the Key to Understanding: Process-Modeling as a Way for Reconstruction......Page 2089
References......Page 2090
Introduction......Page 2092
Warm Climates of the Early Pliocene......Page 2094
Mechanisms for Pliocene Warmth......Page 2095
Intensification of Northern Hemisphere Glaciation......Page 2096
Cause of Northern Hemisphere Glaciation......Page 2098
Links Between Northern Hemisphere Glaciation and Human Evolution......Page 2100
References......Page 2101
Historical Records......Page 2103
Lake Records......Page 2104
Fossil Pollen......Page 2105
Climatic Forcing Mechanisms of Past Drought......Page 2106
Impacts of Paleodrought on Past Societies......Page 2107
References......Page 2108
Relevant Website\r......Page 2109
Sub-Milankovitch (DO/Heinrich) Events......Page 2110
High-Latitude Signals......Page 2112
Low-Latitude Signals......Page 2115
Millennial Changes in Deep- and Intermediate-Ocean Hydrography......Page 2116
North-South Linkage......Page 2117
Mechanisms of Millennial Climate Change: Modeling Efforts......Page 2118
References......Page 2119
Overwash Sand Layers in Coastal Lakes......Page 2121
Proxy Records from Coastal Marshes......Page 2123
Paleohurricane Activity and Global Climate Changes......Page 2125
Stable Isotopes in Tree Rings, Stalagmites, and Corals......Page 2126
Spanish and British Archives......Page 2127
Chinese Documentary Records and Guangdong Typhoon Time-series......Page 2128
Research Needs and Future Research Directions......Page 2129
References......Page 2131
Introduction......Page 2133
Timing of the Younger Dryas......Page 2135
Younger Dryas Records Outside the Amphi-North Atlantic Region......Page 2137
Is there Evidence for a Younger Dryas Oscillation in the Southern Hemisphere?......Page 2138
References......Page 2140
The Last Millennium......Page 2142
Surface Temperature......Page 2143
Precipitation and Drought......Page 2144
El Nintildeo/Southern Oscillation......Page 2145
North Atlantic Oscillation......Page 2146
Other Modes......Page 2147
Theoretical Modeling Results......Page 2148
References......Page 2150
Introduction......Page 2152
Sources and Repositories of Documentary Materials......Page 2153
Ships’ Logbooks......Page 2154
Government and Other Official Records......Page 2155
Newspapers and Government Gazettes......Page 2156
Methods of Historical Climatology Research......Page 2158
References......Page 2159
PALEOCLIMATE RELEVANCE TO GLOBAL WARMING......Page 2161
Radiative Forcing......Page 2162
Instrumental Record......Page 2163
Last Millennium......Page 2164
Ice Cores......Page 2165
Climate Processes......Page 2166
Model Validation......Page 2167
Model Calibration......Page 2168
Ecosystem Dynamics......Page 2169
References......Page 2170
Introduction......Page 2172
The Paleolimnological Method......Page 2173
Coring......Page 2174
Physical and chemical indicators......Page 2177
Applications......Page 2178
Glossary......Page 2179
References......Page 2180
Short History of Cladoceran Research in Paleolimnology......Page 2182
Preservation and Identification of Cladoceran Subfossil Remains......Page 2183
Living Fossils......Page 2184
Cladoceran Evidence of Environmental Changes......Page 2185
Cladoceran Responses to Prehistoric Human Settlements and Recent Watershed Disturbances......Page 2186
Cladoceran Distribution Pattern in Sub-Arctic Lakes as Revealed from Surface Sediment Samples......Page 2187
Conclusions......Page 2188
Glossary......Page 2189
References......Page 2190
Background......Page 2192
Paleolimnological Studies of Acidification......Page 2193
Background......Page 2194
Paleolimnological Reconstructions of Lake Eutrophication......Page 2195
Background......Page 2196
Paleolimnology and Reconstruction of DOC Histories......Page 2197
Paleolimnogical Studies of POPs......Page 2198
References......Page 2199
Ostracode Biology and Taxonomy......Page 2201
Ostracode Taphonomy: Information Loss and Gain......Page 2203
Percent Fragmentation......Page 2204
Ostracodes as Environmental Proxies: Modern Distributions and Quaternary Applications......Page 2205
Ostracodes as Chemical Archives......Page 2209
Oxygen and Carbon Stable Isotopes (delta18O and delta13C)......Page 2210
Cation Ratios (Mg, Sr, and Na/Ca)......Page 2212
Conclusions......Page 2214
References......Page 2216
Introduction......Page 2218
Carotenoids......Page 2219
Light-Absorbing Properties......Page 2220
Analysis......Page 2222
Preservation......Page 2223
Pigments in Quaternary Deposits......Page 2224
Eutrophication of Lakes and Estuaries......Page 2225
Climate Change......Page 2226
References......Page 2229
Eolian Sand in the Quaternary......Page 2231
Loess in the Quaternary......Page 2232
Soils and Paleosols in Quaternary Records......Page 2234
Summary......Page 2240
References......Page 2241
Introduction......Page 2243
Recognition of Paleosols......Page 2244
Paleosols as Stratigraphic Markers and Numerical Dating of Paleosols......Page 2245
Aggradational Pedogenesis and Postburial Alteration of Paleosols......Page 2249
Abbreviations......Page 2251
References......Page 2252
What is Magnetism?......Page 2253
Magnetic Measurements......Page 2254
Magnetic Susceptibility......Page 2255
Frequency Dependence......Page 2257
Abbreviations......Page 2258
References......Page 2259
Micromorphology and the Identification of Buried Soils......Page 2260
Iron, Manganese, and Aluminum Coatings......Page 2262
Anthropogenic Features......Page 2264
Clay and Silt Coatings......Page 2265
Micro-stratigraphic Relations within Paleosols......Page 2266
Micro-morphological Reconstructions of Pedosedimentary and Landscape Evolution......Page 2268
See also......Page 2269
References......Page 2271
Introduction......Page 2272
Weathering Processes......Page 2273
Weathering Zones......Page 2277
Spatial Patterns of Weathering Profiles......Page 2278
Dating Weathering Profiles......Page 2281
Applications......Page 2282
References......Page 2283
Introduction......Page 2284
The Relation of Soil Properties and Soil-Forming Processes......Page 2285
Soil Morphology Studies and the State Factor (CLORPT) Approach......Page 2286
Relations between Soil Morphology and Soil Age......Page 2287
Selected Examples of Time-Dependent Changes and Applications in Quaternary Studies......Page 2288
Relations of Soil Morphology and Climate......Page 2290
Quantitative Evaluation of Soil Morphological Development: Soil Profile Indices......Page 2291
The Future of Soil Morphology Studies in Quaternary Science......Page 2292
References......Page 2294
Definition......Page 2296
Zero-Curtain Effect......Page 2297
Ice Segregation......Page 2298
Factors influencing ALT......Page 2299
Geographic patterns and variability......Page 2301
The Transient Layer......Page 2302
Glossary......Page 2303
References......Page 2304
Website Citations......Page 2305
Classification of Cryoturbations......Page 2306
Periglacial Loading......Page 2307
Cryostatic Heave......Page 2310
Conclusions......Page 2311
References......Page 2312
Introduction......Page 2313
Ice veins and ice wedges......Page 2314
Wedge development......Page 2318
Secondary Infilling......Page 2320
Mechanisms and Conditions......Page 2321
Soil Veins and Wedges of Secondary Infilling (Pseudomorphs)......Page 2322
Characteristics of Tertiary and Quaternary-age pseudomorphs......Page 2323
Ice-Wedge Pseudomorphs......Page 2327
Selective Preservation......Page 2328
References......Page 2329
Models of Paraglacial Sediment Yield......Page 2331
Modeling Paraglacial Sediment Storage......Page 2333
Catastrophic rock-slope failure......Page 2334
Paraglacial rockfall and talus accumulation......Page 2336
Glacier Forelands......Page 2337
Paraglacial fans......Page 2338
Paraglacial Lacustrine Deposits......Page 2339
Barrier coasts......Page 2340
Wider Implications of Paraglacial Landscape Modification......Page 2341
References......Page 2342
Characteristics......Page 2344
Formation......Page 2346
Differential frost heave......Page 2347
Soil circulation......Page 2348
Synthesis......Page 2349
Earth Hummocks......Page 2350
References......Page 2352
Introduction......Page 2354
Aggradation and Degradation......Page 2355
Ground Surface Temperature......Page 2356
Ground Ice......Page 2357
Ice Wedges......Page 2358
Lakes......Page 2359
Other Landforms......Page 2360
Permafrost and Climate Change......Page 2361
References......Page 2362
Closed System Pingo Formation......Page 2363
References......Page 2370
Open System Pingo Formation......Page 2365
Other Ground Ice Mounds......Page 2367
Decay of Ground Ice Mounds......Page 2368
Relict Ramparted Ground Ice Depressions......Page 2369
Slope Deposits and Forms......Page 2371
Solifluction......Page 2372
Gelifluction......Page 2373
Sediment Transport Rates......Page 2374
Landforms......Page 2375
Active-Layer Detachment Slides......Page 2376
Granular Periglacial Slope Deposits......Page 2377
Periglacial Slope Deposits Derived from Clay Bedrock......Page 2378
Periglacial Slope Evolution......Page 2379
References......Page 2380
Geographical Distribution of Block Streams......Page 2382
Morphology......Page 2383
Structure and Composition......Page 2384
Processes of Block Stream Formation......Page 2386
Climatic and Paleoclimatic Significance of Block Streams......Page 2388
References......Page 2389
Introduction......Page 2391
Profile......Page 2392
Particle Size......Page 2393
Mineralogy of the Weathering Products......Page 2394
Clast Angularity......Page 2397
Pleistocene/Moderate Rate of Formation......Page 2398
Implications for Ice Geometry and Dynamics......Page 2399
Conclusions......Page 2400
References......Page 2401
Thermal Conditions......Page 2403
Kinematics and Advance......Page 2405
Shape and Surface Morphology......Page 2406
Environmental Change and Climatic Significance......Page 2407
References......Page 2408
Introduction......Page 2410
Morphology......Page 2411
Talus materials......Page 2412
Debris flows......Page 2414
Rates of development......Page 2415
References......Page 2416
Volumetric Expansion......Page 2418
Ice Segregation......Page 2419
Thermally Induced Stress......Page 2420
Weathering Rates......Page 2421
Weathering Products......Page 2422
Conclusions......Page 2423
References......Page 2425
Phytolith Composition, Characteristics, and Function......Page 2426
Representiveness and preservation......Page 2427
Terminology and Classification......Page 2429
Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction Using Phytolith Analysis......Page 2430
Phytolith Stable Isotope Analysis......Page 2431
Phytoliths in Archeological Research......Page 2432
References......Page 2433
General Reading About Plant Macrofossils......Page 2435
Where are Macrofossils Found?......Page 2436
How do we do Plant Macrofossil Analysis?......Page 2437
Identification of Macrofossils......Page 2438
Seeds and fruits......Page 2439
Cuticles - bud scales - leaves......Page 2440
Plant Macrofossils in Paleoecology......Page 2452
Situations Where Pollen is Uninformative......Page 2453
Other Applications of Macrofossil Analysis......Page 2454
How Will Plant Macrofossil Analysis Develop in the Future?......Page 2455
References......Page 2456
Basis of the Method......Page 2458
Site Selection......Page 2459
Counting......Page 2460
Calibration......Page 2461
Late-Glacial and Holocene Reconstructions......Page 2462
Potential and Limitations of the Method......Page 2464
References......Page 2465
Current Treeline Location, Vegetation, and Climatic Controls......Page 2467
Wood Megafossil Analysis and the Interpretation of Past Treeline Shifts......Page 2468
Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula......Page 2471
Northern Quebec......Page 2472
Northern European Russia and Siberia......Page 2473
References......Page 2475
Tree-Ring Requirements......Page 2477
Chronological Information from Dendroarcheological Samples......Page 2479
Environmental Information from Dendroarcheological Samples......Page 2480
Dendroclimatic Analyses......Page 2481
Behavioral Information from Dendroarcheological Samples......Page 2482
References......Page 2484
Applications......Page 2486
Methods......Page 2487
Eriophorum angustifolium......Page 2488
Phragmites australis......Page 2492
Sphagnum austinii (Sphagnum imbricatum spp. austinii)......Page 2495
Sphagnum section Acutifolia......Page 2499
Chironomidae and Trichoptera......Page 2501
References......Page 2504
The Role of Macrophytes in a Lake Ecosystem and Factors Affecting Their Distribution in a Lake......Page 2508
Late Glacial Paleolimnology......Page 2509
Holocene Paleolimnology......Page 2511
Eutrophication......Page 2513
The Contribution of Macrofossil Analysis to Studies of Past Lake-Level Changes......Page 2518
The Role of Macrofossils in Elucidating Causes of Paleolimnological Changes-Hypothesis Testing......Page 2521
References......Page 2526
North American Packrat Middens......Page 2528
How Middens Are Analyzed......Page 2529
Chihuahuan Desert......Page 2530
Sonoran Desert......Page 2532
Mojave Desert......Page 2533
Great Basin......Page 2534
The Colorado Plateau......Page 2535
Major Implications of Packrat Midden Studies......Page 2537
References......Page 2538
Surface Samples, Taphonomy, Representation......Page 2540
Methods for Surface Sample Studies......Page 2541
Macrofossil Production......Page 2543
Dispersal Distance......Page 2544
Representation......Page 2545
References......Page 2546
Introduction......Page 2548
Reconstructing Treelines by Using Macrofossils......Page 2550
Late-Glacial Treeline Dynamics......Page 2551
Holocene Treeline Dynamics......Page 2552
Fossil Evidence and Models: Linking the Past to the Future......Page 2556
References......Page 2557
Taphonomy......Page 2559
Preservation......Page 2562
Recovery of the Plant Remains, Analysis, Identification, and Quantification......Page 2566
Interpreting Proxy-Data from Archeological Sites......Page 2567
Wild Versus Domesticated Plants......Page 2569
Types of Plant Assemblages, Sampling......Page 2565
History of Plant Growing and the Spread of Agriculture......Page 2572
Processing Techniques, Storage, and Food Preparation......Page 2574
Cultivation Techniques......Page 2576
Some Other Aspects of Archeobotanical Research......Page 2580
References......Page 2584
Vegetation-Sensing Properties of Pollen and Plant Macrofossil Data......Page 2588
Lakes......Page 2589
Wetlands......Page 2590
Fluvial Sediments......Page 2591
Macrofossil and Pollen Data from Individual Sites......Page 2592
Synoptic-Scale Studies: Mapped Networks......Page 2594
Future Prospects......Page 2595
References......Page 2596
Recent Vegetation......Page 2598
The Impact of the Sea on Arctic Climate......Page 2599
Refuges and Centers of Dispersal......Page 2600
The principle of uniformitarianism......Page 2601
Changeable vegetation types......Page 2602
Aquatics......Page 2603
Littoral pioneers and riparian ruderals......Page 2604
Steppes......Page 2605
Woodlands and forest tundra......Page 2606
Snow-bed vegetation......Page 2607
The Holocene tundra as an exception within the Quaternary......Page 2608
See also......Page 2609
References......Page 2610
Arctic North America......Page 2611
Northern Climate and Landscapes......Page 2619
Late Pliocene (3.6-1.8Mya)......Page 2620
Last Interglaciation (ca. 125-75kya)......Page 2621
MIS 2 (25-16kya)......Page 2622
Holocene Macrofossil Records (ca. 11kya to the Present)......Page 2623
Vegetation Reconstructions......Page 2625
References......Page 2626
Introduction......Page 2628
Lateglacial and Holocene Climate Changes......Page 2629
The Kap København Formation......Page 2630
The Last Interglacial......Page 2631
Holocene Vegetation Development......Page 2632
Development of Lake Vegetation......Page 2634
Colonization of Greenland......Page 2635
References......Page 2636
Introduction......Page 2637
Northeastern Iowa......Page 2641
Southeastern Minnesota......Page 2646
Southeastern Nebraska......Page 2647
Southwestern Indiana......Page 2649
Southwestern Missouri......Page 2650
Reconstruction of the Prairie-Forest Ecotone......Page 2651
References......Page 2652
Late Glacial Multidisciplinary Studies......Page 2654
The Late Glacial in Switzerland......Page 2655
The Pleniglacial and Late Glacial in Lake Zeribar, Zagros Mountains, Iran......Page 2656
Multivariate Approach to Climate Reconstruction......Page 2658
Temperature Reconstructions in the Late Glacial at Kraringkenes, Western Norway: An Example of a Multiproxy Climate Reconstruction......Page 2659
The Responses of Flora, Fauna, and Vegetation to Rapid Climatic Changes......Page 2660
Conclusions on Biotic Responses......Page 2661
References......Page 2664
Introduction......Page 2666
Sedimentation and Preservation......Page 2667
Pollen Dispersal and Spatial Representation......Page 2668
Plant-Pollen Representation......Page 2669
Regional-Scale Studies......Page 2673
Continental-Scale Reconstructions......Page 2674
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 2675
References......Page 2676
Relevant Website......Page 2677
Introduction......Page 2678
Mutual Climate Range Methods......Page 2680
Modern Analog Technique......Page 2681
Response Surface......Page 2682
Weighted Averaging and Weighted Average - Partial Least Squares......Page 2683
Artificial Neural Networks......Page 2684
Time-Slice/Spatial Study......Page 2685
Continuous Holocene Study......Page 2686
Perspectives......Page 2687
See also......Page 2688
References......Page 2689
Introduction......Page 2690
Sample Size......Page 2691
Production of Prospective Fossils......Page 2693
The Dynamics of Landscape Biodiversity......Page 2694
Controls of Sample Species Richness......Page 2695
References......Page 2696
Introduction......Page 2697
Error Estimation......Page 2698
Single Data Sets......Page 2699
Data Analysis......Page 2700
Pollen-Based Climate Reconstructions......Page 2701
Causative Factors......Page 2702
References......Page 2703
Introduction......Page 2705
Database History......Page 2706
Database Structure......Page 2707
Synonymy and Naming Conventions......Page 2708
Database Applications......Page 2709
Conclusions......Page 2711
References......Page 2712
Surface Samples......Page 2713
Pollen Trapping......Page 2714
Vegetation history......Page 2717
References......Page 2718
Introduction......Page 2720
Types of Sites......Page 2721
Sylvania, Upper Michigan, USA......Page 2722
Southern Scandinavia......Page 2723
Rate of Vegetational Change......Page 2725
Charcoal and Macrofossils......Page 2726
References......Page 2728
How to Gain Knowledge about the Spread of Plants......Page 2729
Examples of Late Quaternary Plant Spreading......Page 2730
Speed and Pattern - How Did It Work?......Page 2732
Factors Influencing the Individualistic Spread of Trees......Page 2734
References......Page 2735
Paleoclimate Reconstructions......Page 2737
Modelling Vegetation......Page 2738
The northern continents......Page 2739
The lower latitudes and Southern Hemisphere......Page 2740
Historical Biogeography: Migrations, Refugia, and Novel Biomes......Page 2741
Migration versus Refugia......Page 2742
Steppe and tundra in the LGM......Page 2743
The Arctic Treeline......Page 2744
Current Developments and Future Directions......Page 2745
References......Page 2746
Pollen Dispersal and Deposition Models in POLLSCAPE......Page 2748
POLLSCAPE - A Simulation Framework for Heterogeneous Vegetation......Page 2749
Effects of Vegetation Heterogeneity and Lake Size on Pollen Assemblages......Page 2751
Other POLLSCAPE Applications......Page 2752
Application of POLLSCAPE for Quantitative Reconstruction of Vegetation......Page 2755
References......Page 2756
Relevant Website......Page 2757
Introduction......Page 2758
Past Human Impact and Archeology......Page 2759
Past Human Impact and Nature Conservation......Page 2760
The Indicator-Species Approach......Page 2762
Anthropogenic pollen indicators......Page 2763
Pasture lands/grazing......Page 2767
Wood pastures and forest grazing......Page 2768
Hay meadows/mowing and the infield-outland/ outfield system......Page 2771
The Comparative Approach......Page 2774
Calibration of Pollen Data onto Land Cover......Page 2775
Prospects......Page 2777
References......Page 2782
Depositional Environments and Vegetation Development......Page 2784
Duration and Timing of Events......Page 2787
Vegetation Character and Comparisons with the Holocene......Page 2790
References......Page 2791
Introduction......Page 2793
Tropical Rain Forests......Page 2794
Savanna Woodlands and Grasslands......Page 2796
Arid and Semiarid Biomes......Page 2797
Conclusions......Page 2798
References......Page 2799
Relevant Websites......Page 2800
Australia and New Zealand......Page 2801
Nature of the Data......Page 2802
New Zealand......Page 2804
Southeastern Australia......Page 2805
Northern Australia......Page 2807
References......Page 2810
Introduction......Page 2812
The Sartanskaya Stade (simMIS 2)......Page 2813
The Productivity Paradox and Sartanskaya Vegetation......Page 2814
The Karginski Interstade (simMIS 3)......Page 2818
Karginski Vegetation......Page 2819
El’gygytgyn Lake - A Unique Paleoenvironmental Archive......Page 2820
References......Page 2821
Alaska and Yukon Territory......Page 2823
Continental Canada......Page 2830
Canadian Arctic Archipelago......Page 2832
MIS 2 and LGM Vegetation......Page 2833
Conclusions......Page 2835
References......Page 2836
Long Pollen Records, Biome Evolution and Nonanalog Vegetation Communities......Page 2838
Long Pollen Records, Biome Evolution and Nonanalog Vegetation Communities......Page 2839
Late Pleistocene Dynamics of the Northern Andes......Page 2843
Pollen Record from the Colombian Savannas......Page 2845
How Stable/Dynamic is the Amazonian Rainforest? The Pollen Evidence......Page 2848
References......Page 2850
Greece......Page 2852
Italy......Page 2853
France......Page 2854
Pleistocene Extinctions and the South European Refuges......Page 2856
Suborbital Forcing......Page 2857
References......Page 2858
Introduction......Page 2861
Environments of Western North America......Page 2862
Aspects of Quaternary Palynology in WNA......Page 2864
Late Pleistocene Pollen Records......Page 2866
Marine Isotope Stage 5......Page 2867
Biomes of the LGM......Page 2869
Transition from glacial to interglacial conditions......Page 2871
References......Page 2873
Africa......Page 2875
Evidence of Past Atmospheric Circulation: Influx Values in Marine Pollen Sequences off the Coast of West Africa......Page 2876
Evidence of Past Rainfall Variations: Freshwater Algae Record in Marine Pollen Sequences off the Coast of West Africa......Page 2880
Extension of Tropical Forest Ecosystems in West Africa and the Greening of the Saharan Desert......Page 2881
Retreat of lsquoCool’ Species from the Lowland Guineo-Congolian Forests......Page 2883
The Upward Forest Expansion in Eastern Africa......Page 2886
The End of the African Humid Period......Page 2889
See also......Page 2890
References......Page 2891
Lead-up to the Last Glacial Maximum......Page 2894
Recovery from the LGM......Page 2895
Patterns of Change in the Holocene in Australia......Page 2897
Anthropogenic Impacts......Page 2902
A Selection of Outstanding Questions......Page 2904
References......Page 2905
Northeastern North America......Page 2907
History of Palynological Research in NENA......Page 2909
NENA Vegetational History......Page 2910
Beech......Page 2912
No-Analog Plant Associations and Biomes......Page 2913
See also......Page 2914
References......Page 2915
Introduction......Page 2917
The Ural Mountains......Page 2918
Kazakhstan......Page 2919
Central Siberia......Page 2920
East Siberia......Page 2922
South Siberia......Page 2923
Northeastern Asia......Page 2924
Conclusions......Page 2925
Relevant Website......Page 2926
Chronologies......Page 2927
Recolonization of Forest......Page 2928
The Wildwood: What is the Natural Vegetation of Northern Europe?......Page 2929
The Elm Decline......Page 2930
Human Activity......Page 2931
Relevant Website......Page 2932
Introduction......Page 2933
Northern California......Page 2934
Oregon Coast Range......Page 2935
Northern Washington......Page 2936
Coastal British Columbia to Southeast Alaska......Page 2937
Northern Rocky Mountains......Page 2938
Conclusions......Page 2939
Abbreviations......Page 2940
References......Page 2941
Amazon Rainforest and Coastal Mangroves......Page 2942
Amazon Rainforest and the Neighboring Savannas......Page 2944
Cerrado, Semideciduous Forest, and Atlantic Rainforest of Southeastern Brazil......Page 2946
Pampa of Argentina......Page 2947
See also......Page 2948
References......Page 2949
Introduction......Page 2950
Modern Forest Distribution and Composition in the Southeastern United States......Page 2951
Pollen Signature of Modern Vegetation......Page 2954
Deglacial Interval (19.5-10calkyr BP)......Page 2955
Late Holocene (5calkyr BP to Present)......Page 2957
References......Page 2959
Relevant Website......Page 2960
Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands......Page 2961
Southern France and Corsica......Page 2964
Peninsular Italy and Sicily......Page 2965
Southern Balkan Peninsula, Dalmatian Islands, and Crete......Page 2966
Conclusions......Page 2968
References......Page 2970
Landscape and Climate......Page 2972
Pollen Records......Page 2973
General Summary......Page 2974
Coastal California......Page 2975
Great Basin......Page 2978
Desert West......Page 2979
References......Page 2981
Introduction......Page 2983
Commonly Used Methods of Correlation......Page 2984
The Vrica Global Stratotype Section and Point......Page 2985
Radiocarbon Dating at the Limit......Page 2986
The Timing of the Last Interglacial from Shoreline Deposits......Page 2987
The Demise of the Australian Megafauna......Page 2989
Wanganui Basin......Page 2990
Rangitawa Tephra: A Widespread Marker Bed in the South West Pacific Region......Page 2992
The Matuyama/Brunhes Boundary (MBB)......Page 2993
Tektites......Page 2994
Pollen Analysis of Marine Sediments......Page 2995
Concluding Remarks......Page 2996
See also......Page 2998
References......Page 2999
Quaternary Changes in Flora and Fauna......Page 3001
The Evolution of Species......Page 3002
The Evolution of Voles......Page 3003
Migration and Dispersal of Species......Page 3004
Larger Mammal Biozonation......Page 3006
Smaller Mammal Biozonation......Page 3008
See also......Page 3009
References......Page 3010
Global boundary Stratotype Sections and Points......Page 3011
Defining the Quaternary......Page 3012
Middle Pleistocene......Page 3013
Holocene Series......Page 3015
Finer Subdivision of the Quaternary using Marine Isotope Stages......Page 3016
References......Page 3018
Climatostratigraphy......Page 3020
Terminology......Page 3021
Terrestrial Sequences......Page 3022
Ocean Sediment Sequences......Page 3023
Future Potential......Page 3025
References......Page 3026
What is Lithostratigraphy?......Page 3028
Hierarchic Structure......Page 3029
Defining a lithostratigraphic unit......Page 3030
Nomenclatural rules......Page 3033
Splitting or Lumping? Scale and Hierarchy of Lithostratigraphic Units......Page 3035
The ‘Bed’ in a Lithostratigraphic Sense......Page 3038
Conclusion......Page 3039
References......Page 3041
Lake-Level Fluctuations......Page 3043
Sea-Level Change......Page 3045
Allostratigraphy......Page 3046
Glacial Sediments......Page 3047
Fluvial Sediments......Page 3048
References......Page 3049
Introduction......Page 3050
Definitions......Page 3051
Selected Milestones in Pedostratigraphy......Page 3052
Eastern European Loess......Page 3055
The Loess Plateau of China......Page 3056
Laboratory studies......Page 3057
References......Page 3058
Introduction......Page 3060
Sequence Stratigraphic Models......Page 3061
Ravinement surface (RS) or transgressive surface of erosion (TSE)......Page 3063
Sequence Stratigraphy in Quaternary Sediments......Page 3064
Sedimentary Facies Analysis......Page 3065
The importance of shellbeds......Page 3066
How are they special?......Page 3067
Inner Shelf Sequence Motif......Page 3068
Astronomical Calibration......Page 3069
Summary......Page 3070
References......Page 3071
Early Studies: Pioneer of Tephrochronology......Page 3074
Magnitude and Dispersal......Page 3075
Macroscopic......Page 3076
Microscopic......Page 3078
Chemical traces......Page 3079
Mineralogical and Geochemical Characteristics......Page 3080
Ferromagnesian mineral assemblages......Page 3081
Glass geochemistry......Page 3082
Fe-Ti oxides and silicate mineral chemistry......Page 3083
Historical accounts: eyewitness descriptions of tephra falls/eruptions......Page 3084
Radiocarbon dating......Page 3085
Wiggle-match dating using dendrochronology or peat stratigraphy......Page 3086
Paleomagnetism......Page 3087
Volcanic hazard assessment and eruption frequency from long tephra records......Page 3089
Geomorphic and landscape reconstruction......Page 3090
Glacier advance and retreat, dating of ice......Page 3091
Hominid evolution......Page 3094
Archeology......Page 3096
Conclusions......Page 3097
Glossary......Page 3098
References......Page 3100
Introduction......Page 3104
Instrumentation......Page 3105
Pulse discrimination electronics......Page 3107
Counting procedure......Page 3108
Instrumentation......Page 3110
Passive shielding......Page 3111
CO2 preparation......Page 3112
Age calculation......Page 3113
References......Page 3115
AMS Fundamentals......Page 3117
An example of AMS operation......Page 3118
Chemical preparation of samples......Page 3120
Calculation and Normalization to Standards......Page 3121
The 0.5-1MV lsquosmall’ tandem......Page 3122
References......Page 3123
The Nature of Measurement and Uncertainty......Page 3125
Stochastic Models......Page 3126
Estimating Uncertainty......Page 3127
Calibration......Page 3128
References......Page 3130
Variations in Atmospheric 14C......Page 3131
The Holocene......Page 3132
The Deglaciation......Page 3134
The Middle/Upper Paleolithic......Page 3135
The Anthropogenic Era......Page 3137
References......Page 3138
Introduction......Page 3140
Correction for Isotopic Fractionation-delta13C Correction......Page 3141
Natural Radiocarbon Variations......Page 3142
14C Variability Related to Earth’s Geomagnetic Field......Page 3143
14C Production by Solar Flares......Page 3144
14C Variability Related to the Carbon Cycle......Page 3146
Fossil Fuels......Page 3147
Nuclear Weapons Testing and Nuclear Power......Page 3148
References......Page 3149
Calibration......Page 3151
Corals......Page 3152
Calibration Curves......Page 3153
Single Age Calibration......Page 3154
Bayesian Modeling......Page 3155
Mixed Marine and Terrestrial Samples......Page 3157
Future of Calibration......Page 3158
References......Page 3159
Charcoal: Definitions, Structure, and Chemistry......Page 3161
Charcoal Stability......Page 3162
Charcoal Contamination......Page 3164
Acid-Alkali-Acid......Page 3165
Radiocarbon Dating of Fine Charcoal......Page 3166
Conclusion: Interpretation of Radiocarbon Dates on Charcoal......Page 3167
See also......Page 3168
References......Page 3169
Introduction......Page 3170
Algae and aquatic moss macrofossils......Page 3171
Larger-sized higher plant macrofossils......Page 3172
Pollen......Page 3173
Modern environments......Page 3174
Conclusion......Page 3175
References......Page 3176
Introduction......Page 3178
Observations of Relative Sea Level......Page 3179
Elevation attribute of a sea-level index point......Page 3180
Sea-Level Changes: Local to Global......Page 3181
References......Page 3184
Erosion Benches, Platforms, Strand Flats......Page 3186
Sea Caves, Arches......Page 3189
Spurs, Grooves, Furrows, and Surge Channels......Page 3190
Marine Terraces......Page 3191
Algal rims, microatolls, trottoirs, cornices, surf benches......Page 3192
Reef Flats, Coral Conglomerates, Beachrocks, Speleothems......Page 3193
References......Page 3194
Introduction: Definition of High-Energy Coasts......Page 3196
Sea-Level Indicators on High-Energy Coasts......Page 3197
Shoreface-inner shelf facies......Page 3198
Gravel and Boulder beaches......Page 3199
Beachrock......Page 3200
Sedimentary Response to Sea-Level Change......Page 3201
Sedimentary Indicators of Relative Sea-Level Change: Transgression and Regression......Page 3202
Quaternary High-Energy Shorelines and Sea-Level Indicators......Page 3203
References......Page 3206
Characteristic Intertidal Environments......Page 3207
Salt-marshes......Page 3208
The Utility of Low-Energy Sedimentary Environments......Page 3209
Sea-Level Indicators......Page 3211
An example of the age-altitude approach......Page 3212
A variant of the age-altitude approach......Page 3214
Sea-Level Tendencies......Page 3215
Marsh Elevation Diagrams......Page 3216
See also......Page 3218
References......Page 3219
Coral and Sea Level......Page 3220
Quaternary Sea-Level Highstands......Page 3221
Post-Glacial Sea-Level Rise......Page 3223
Holocene Sea-Level Variations......Page 3224
Microatolls and Interannual Variations in Sea Level......Page 3227
References......Page 3229
Introduction......Page 3230
Testate Amoebae......Page 3232
Pollen......Page 3233
Derivation of Sea-Level Index Points......Page 3234
Isolation Basins......Page 3235
Transfer Functions......Page 3236
Conclusions......Page 3237
References......Page 3238
Eustatic Sea-Level Changes, Glacial-Interglacial Cycles......Page 3240
The Nature of Glacial-Interglacial Cycles......Page 3242
Evidence for Glacio-eustatic Sea-Level Changes Prior to the Last Glacial Maximum......Page 3244
Barbados......Page 3245
Coorong Coastal Plain, South Australia......Page 3246
Timing of Quaternary Glacio-eustatic Sea-Level Changes......Page 3247
The Last Interglacial Maximum......Page 3248
References......Page 3249
Introduction......Page 3251
Eustatic Sea Levels During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)......Page 3252
Barbados......Page 3253
Sunda Shelf......Page 3254
Australia......Page 3255
Rottnest Island, Western Australia......Page 3257
References......Page 3259
Introduction......Page 3261
Vertical Deflection of the Solid Earth......Page 3262
Vertical Deflection of the Ocean Surface......Page 3263
Sea-Level Equation......Page 3264
Inferring Earth Viscosity Structure......Page 3265
Inferring Late Quaternary Ice Histories......Page 3267
References......Page 3268
Relative Sea-Level Change in High Latitudes: Controls and Patterns......Page 3270
Queen Elizabeth Islands, Canadian High Arctic......Page 3272
Antarctica......Page 3277
References......Page 3281
Introduction......Page 3283
Atlantic Seaboard of North America......Page 3284
Europe......Page 3287
Southern Hemisphere......Page 3288
Conclusion......Page 3289
References......Page 3290
Introduction......Page 3292
Earthquake Deformation Cycle......Page 3296
Volcanic Processes......Page 3298
Epeirogenic and Isostatic Tectonic Processes......Page 3299
Pleistocene......Page 3300
Holocene......Page 3303
References......Page 3306
Coral......Page 3308
Mangrove......Page 3309
Beachrock, Oyster Bed, and Tubeworms......Page 3310
Sea-Level Lowstand during the LGM......Page 3311
Lateglacial Rapid Sea-Level Rise......Page 3312
Holocene Sea-Level Highstand......Page 3313
References......Page 3315
Introduction......Page 3317
Corrections to U-Series Coral Ages......Page 3318
Dating of Speleothems......Page 3320
References......Page 3321
History......Page 3323
Formation of Varved Lake Sediments......Page 3324
Clastic Varved Lake Sediments......Page 3325
Organic Varved Lake Sediments......Page 3326
Evaporitic Varved Lake Sediments......Page 3327
Varve Chronology and Applications......Page 3328
Varve Chronology......Page 3329
Error Estimations......Page 3330
References......Page 3331
Introduction and History......Page 3333
Varve Formation and Preservation......Page 3334
Classification and Morphology......Page 3335
Sampling and image analysis......Page 3336
Independent dating and age control......Page 3338
Chronology construction......Page 3339
Applications other than dating......Page 3340
References......Page 3341
Historical Background......Page 3343
Distribution of Quaternary Vertebrate Remains......Page 3344
Sampling, Excavation, and Analysis Methods......Page 3347
Paleoecology......Page 3348
Paleobiogeography......Page 3349
Interactions with Hominins and Extinctions......Page 3350
References......Page 3351
The Plio-Pleistocene Transition and Biochronology......Page 3353
The Old World Canidae (genus Canis)......Page 3354
Villafranchian Proboscideans and the Early Dispersal of Elephants......Page 3355
The Voles (Microtus s.l.) Radiation......Page 3357
An Overview on the Early Pleistocene Herpetofauna......Page 3358
References......Page 3359
Modern Physical and Environmental Setting......Page 3361
Southern Africa......Page 3363
Northern Africa......Page 3368
Eastern Africa......Page 3369
See also......Page 3370
References......Page 3371
Introduction......Page 3373
Rancholabrean Land Mammal Age......Page 3374
Amphibians, Reptiles, and Birds......Page 3375
Localities......Page 3376
Late Pleistocene Extinction......Page 3377
Mexico......Page 3378
References......Page 3380
Relevant Website......Page 3381
Introduction......Page 3382
Mikulino ( = Kazantsevo, = Eemian) Interglacial......Page 3383
Early Valdai = Zyrian ( = Early Weichselian) Glaciation......Page 3384
Briansk ( = Late Karga, = Denekamp) Interstadial Mammal Assemblages......Page 3385
Late Valdai Glaciation......Page 3391
References......Page 3398
Biogeographic Origin......Page 3400
Key Sites......Page 3401
Andean and Western Peru......Page 3402
Central Argentina and Central-Southern Chile......Page 3403
Aves......Page 3404
Xenarthra......Page 3405
Armadillos and armadillo-like pampatheres......Page 3406
Proterotheres......Page 3407
Rodentia......Page 3408
Tapirs......Page 3409
Cats......Page 3410
Camels (guanacos and vicunas)......Page 3411
South American LP/EH extinction......Page 3412
References......Page 3413
Introduction......Page 3415
Biogeography of Southeast Asia......Page 3416
Java......Page 3417
Sumatra......Page 3418
Indochinese Province......Page 3419
Late Pleistocene Local and Global Extinctions......Page 3420
Conclusions......Page 3421
References......Page 3422
Introduction......Page 3424
Woolly Mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius)......Page 3425
Steppe Bison (Bison priscus)......Page 3426
Arctic Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus parryii)......Page 3427
Preservation of Frozen Mummies......Page 3428
References......Page 3429
Introduction......Page 3430
Extinctions before the end of the Last Glaciation......Page 3431
Australia......Page 3432
The Americas......Page 3435
Eurasia......Page 3436
Martin’s Pleistocene Overkill Hypothesis......Page 3438
The Environmental change Hypothesis......Page 3441
Can We find the Smoking Gun?......Page 3443
References......Page 3444
Relevant Website......Page 3445
Mid-Pleistocene of Africa......Page 3446
Climatic Background......Page 3447
Eastern Africa......Page 3449
Southern Africa......Page 3450
Overview of the African Middle Pleistocene Mammal Fauna......Page 3451
References......Page 3452
Introduction......Page 3454
The Latest Early Pleistocene (Villafranchian-Galerian Transition)......Page 3456
The Early Middle Pleistocene......Page 3457
The Late Middle Pleistocene......Page 3460
References......Page 3461
Introduction......Page 3463
Mangla-Samwal anticline (Pakistan)......Page 3464
The Trinil HK (Haupt Knochenschicht), Kedung Brubus, and Ngandong fauna......Page 3466
South Chinese caves and fissures......Page 3469
The caves Wiman Nakin and Thum Phra Khai Phet......Page 3472
Wallacea......Page 3475
References......Page 3478
Polymerase Chain Reaction......Page 3481
Sources of Ancient DNA......Page 3482
Recent Directions in Ancient DNA......Page 3483
References......Page 3485
Introduction......Page 3486
The Lower Paleolithic......Page 3487
The Middle Paleolithic......Page 3488
The Upper Paleolithic......Page 3489
Raw Material......Page 3490
Ideology and Religion......Page 3491
References......Page 3493
Binder1.pdf......Page 0
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF......Page 2
ASSOCIATE EDITORS......Page 3
SECTION EDITORS......Page 4
DEDICATION......Page 5
FOREWORD......Page 7
INTRODUCTION......Page 9
Permission Acknowledgments......Page 11