Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, 3e, Chemical Engineering

Cover Page......Page 1
Table of Contents......Page 3
Glossary......Page 5
Absorption Processes......Page 6
Gas Solubility......Page 8
Mass Transfer Principles......Page 9
Dilute Solutions......Page 10
Multicomponent Absorption......Page 11
Absorption with Chemical Reaction......Page 12
Material Balances......Page 13
Dilute Systems......Page 14
Material Balances......Page 15
Absorption Factors......Page 16
Rate Models......Page 18
Process Design......Page 19
Packed Columns......Page 20
Tray Columns......Page 22
Other Contactors......Page 24
Packed Columns......Page 25
Tray Columns......Page 26
Nomenclature......Page 27
References......Page 29
Glossary......Page 30
General Applications......Page 31
Microporous Adsorbents......Page 32
Thermodynamics of Adsorption......Page 33
Adsorption Kinetics......Page 35
Micropore Diffusion......Page 36
External Mass Transfer Resistance......Page 37
Measurement of Intraparticle Diffusivities......Page 38
Adsorption Column Dynamics......Page 39
Mathematical Modeling......Page 40
Chromatography......Page 41
Cyclic Batch Adsorption Processes......Page 42
Thermal Swing Processes......Page 43
Pressure Swing Processes......Page 44
Displacement Desorption......Page 45
Simulated Countercurrent Systems......Page 47
References......Page 49
Glossary......Page 51
Colloidal Stability......Page 52
Natural Phenomena......Page 53
Particle Technology......Page 54
Environmental Influence......Page 56
Critical Physical Properties......Page 57
Particle Size Distribution......Page 58
Chemical Properties......Page 60
Stokes’ Law and Momentum Transfer......Page 61
Phoretic Forces......Page 62
Curvilinear Particle Motion......Page 63
Diffusion Processes......Page 64
Nucleation and Growth......Page 65
Growth Laws......Page 66
Nucleation and Condensation Processes......Page 67
Measurement  Principles......Page 68
Electrical Charging and Particle Size......Page 69
Centrifugation......Page 70
Diffusion and Filtration......Page 71
Single-Particle Optical Analyzers......Page 72
Remote Sensing Techniques......Page 73
Macroscopic Techniques......Page 74
Industrial Gas Cleaning......Page 75
Filtration......Page 76
References......Page 77
Glossary......Page 78
Discontinuous Processing......Page 79
Batch Processing Plants......Page 80
Multipurpose Plant......Page 81
Economics of Batch Operations......Page 82
Batch Cost Minimization......Page 83
Batch Process Management......Page 84
Defined Modeling......Page 85
Multistage Modeling......Page 86
Mathematical Expression......Page 87
Solution of the Problem......Page 88
Safety......Page 89
Failure of Materials......Page 91
Stress and Fatigue......Page 92
References......Page 93
Glossary......Page 94
Economics......Page 95
History......Page 96
Mechanisms of Industrial Catalysis Reactions......Page 97
Polyethylene (Ziegler-Natta catalyst)......Page 98
Alcohols from esters......Page 99
Research for Profit......Page 100
Basic Catalysis......Page 101
Licensing......Page 102
References......Page 103
Glossary......Page 104
Particulates......Page 105
Unsupported Particulate Catalysts......Page 106
Gas Adsorption: Surface Area......Page 107
Mercury Intrusion......Page 108
Powders......Page 109
Crush Strength of Single Pellet......Page 110
Attrition and Abrasion......Page 111
Electron Microscopy......Page 112
Elemental Analysis......Page 115
Crystallinity......Page 117
Chemisorption......Page 118
Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 119
Crystallite Size by X-Ray Diffraction......Page 120
Electrochemical Technique: Cyclic Voltammetry......Page 121
Surface Composition......Page 122
Complementary Techniques......Page 123
Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 124
Magnetic Resonance......Page 125
Neutrons......Page 126
M¨ossbauer Spectroscopy......Page 127
References......Page 128
Glossary......Page 130
Process Models......Page 131
Algebraic Equations......Page 132
Partial Differential Equations......Page 133
Flowsheet Simulations......Page 134
Structure of Optimization Problems......Page 135
Unconstrained Optimization......Page 136
Process Synthesis......Page 138
Heat Exchanger Network Synthesis......Page 139
Introduction......Page 140
Process Operation......Page 142
Petroleum Refining Example......Page 144
References......Page 145
Glossary......Page 146
Overview......Page 147
Mode-Selective Chemistry......Page 148
Coherent Phase Control......Page 149
Introduction......Page 155
Perturbative Treatment......Page 158
Optimal Control......Page 160
Experimental Examples of Wave Packet Control......Page 162
Genetic Algorithms......Page 163
Coherent Population Transfer......Page 165
Control of External Degrees of Freedom......Page 166
References......Page 170
Glossary......Page 171
Fluid Properties......Page 172
Superconductivity......Page 174
Refrigeration and Liquefaction......Page 175
Isenthalpic Expansion......Page 176
Combined Isenthalpic and Isentropic Expansion......Page 177
Cryocoolers......Page 178
Air Separation......Page 179
Rare Gas Recovery......Page 181
Natural Gas Processing......Page 182
Equipment for Cryogenic Processing......Page 183
Expansion Devices......Page 184
Expansion Valve......Page 185
Plate–Fin Exchangers......Page 186
Reversing Exchangers......Page 187
Insulation Concepts......Page 188
Multilayer Insulation......Page 189
Storage Systems......Page 190
Instrumentation......Page 191
Human Hazards......Page 192
Flammability and Detonability......Page 193
References......Page 194
Glossary......Page 195
Objectives of Crystallization Processes......Page 196
Solid–Liquid Equilibrium......Page 197
Mass and Energy Balances......Page 199
Supersaturation......Page 201
Mechanisms......Page 202
Mechanisms......Page 203
Fundamentals of Crystal Growth......Page 204
Crystal Growth in Mixed Crystallizers......Page 205
Crystal Purity......Page 206
Crystal Morphology......Page 207
Crystal Size Distributions......Page 209
Relationship of Solubility to Mode of Operation......Page 212
Crystallizers......Page 213
 Perfectly Mixed, Continuous Crystallizers......Page 215
Preferential Removal of Crystals......Page 217
Batch Crystallization......Page 220
Summary......Page 222
References......Page 223
Glossary......Page 224
General Description......Page 225
Distillation Theory......Page 228
Distillation Column Design......Page 230
Calculation of the Required Number of Theoretical Stages......Page 231
Flash Distillation......Page 232
Reactive Distillation......Page 233
Energy Consumption......Page 234
Distillation Column Control......Page 235
References......Page 236
Glossary......Page 237
Cell Description......Page 238
Potential......Page 239
Ion Conduction......Page 240
Electrode Kinetics......Page 241
Governing Equations......Page 243
Mass-Transfer Boundary Layer......Page 244
Primary Current Distribution......Page 245
Tertiary Current Distribution......Page 246
Current Distribution Characteristics......Page 247
Process Modeling......Page 248
Technical Factors......Page 249
Energy Conversion Systems......Page 250
Future Developments......Page 251
References......Page 253
Glossary......Page 254
Generic Principle of Balance......Page 255
Equations of Motion......Page 256
Entropy Production Principle......Page 258
Constitutive Relations......Page 259
Momentum Balance......Page 260
Head concept......Page 261
Pump or work head......Page 262
Thermal Energy (Heat Transfer)......Page 264
Newtonian......Page 265
Friction Factors......Page 266
Power law......Page 267
Reynolds Stresses......Page 268
Mixing Length Models......Page 269
Other Closure Models......Page 270
Specific design conditions......Page 271
Herschel–Bulkley Model Pipe Flow......Page 272
Hydraulic Grade Line Method......Page 273
Pumps......Page 275
Centrifugal pumps......Page 276
Drag Coefficients......Page 277
See also the Following Articles......Page 278
References......Page 279
Glossary......Page 280
General Principles......Page 281
Shear Rate......Page 283
Baffles and Impeller Position......Page 284
Process Considerations......Page 285
Scaleup Relationships......Page 288
Role of Dynamic and Geometric Similarity......Page 289
Liquid-Solid Contacting......Page 291
Gas-Liquid Contacting......Page 293
Effect of Gas Rate on Power Consumption......Page 295
Liquid Extraction......Page 296
Low-Viscosity Blending......Page 297
Side-Entering Mixers......Page 298
Fluid Motion......Page 299
Heat Transfer......Page 300
Inline Mixers......Page 301
Pilot Plant Procedures......Page 302
Shear Rate Magnitude and Total Shear Work......Page 303
What to Do in the Pilot Plant......Page 304
References......Page 305
Glossary......Page 320
Pressure as a Thermodynamic Variable......Page 321
Static Apparatus......Page 322
Dynamic Pressure Generation......Page 327
General Considerations of Phase Changes......Page 328
Diamond Synthesis......Page 329
Synthesis of Other Inorganic Materials......Page 331
Journey to the Center of the Earth......Page 332
Reference......Page 333
Glossary......Page 306
Applications in Chemical Engineering......Page 307
Criteria for Selection......Page 308
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers......Page 309
Plate-Fin Exchanger......Page 312
Air-Cooled Exchangers......Page 313
Other Types of Heat Exchangers......Page 314
Rate Equation......Page 315
The Design Integral and the Mean Temperature Difference......Page 316
The Design Process......Page 317
See also the Following Articles......Page 318
References......Page 319
Glossary......Page 335
Diffusion Across a Thin Film......Page 336
Diffusion of a Pulse......Page 337
Problems with this Simple Picture......Page 338
Dispersion......Page 339
Mass Transfer......Page 340
Mass Transfer Coefficients......Page 341
Problems with Mass Transfer Coefficients......Page 342
Conclusions......Page 343
References......Page 344
Glossary......Page 345
Major Membrane Application Types......Page 346
Simple Effects......Page 348
Hindered Transport......Page 349
Concentration Polarization and Fouling in MF, UF,and NF......Page 350
Sorption-Diffusion Separation Mechanisms......Page 352
Membrane Material Selection......Page 353
Membrane Modularization and Packaging......Page 354
Simple” Sorption-Diffusion Mechanism......Page 357
Ion-Conducting Membranes......Page 363
Strategies to Deal with Gas Separation Membranes Shortcomings......Page 364
Crosslinking Approach......Page 365
Mixed Matrix Approach......Page 366
Hydrogen Separations......Page 367
Air Separation......Page 369
Acid Gas Removal......Page 372
Organic Vapor Separations......Page 373
Pervaporation......Page 374
Alcohol Dehydration......Page 375
Production of Organic Acid Esters......Page 377
Membrane Distillation......Page 378
Reverse Osmosis......Page 379
Ultrafiltration......Page 384
Microfiltration......Page 386
Membrane Solvent Extraction/Membrane Contactors......Page 387
Emulsified Liquid Membranes......Page 388
Facilitated Transport and Coupled Transport......Page 389
Industrial Dialysis......Page 390
Electrodialysis......Page 391
Electrolysis......Page 392
Bipolar Membrane Syntheses......Page 393
Catalytic Membrane Reactors for Chemical Processing......Page 394
Applications in Discovery and Research......Page 395
Separation by Size or Charge Discrimination......Page 397
High-Performance Tangential Flow Filtration......Page 398
Membrane-Based Affinity Separation......Page 399
Membrane Bioreactors......Page 400
Hemodialysis, Hemofiltration......Page 402
Blood Oxygenation......Page 403
Controlled Release......Page 405
Active Controlled Release......Page 406
Membrane Sensors......Page 407
References......Page 408
Glossary......Page 411
Historical Development of MOCVD......Page 412
General Description of the MOCVD Process......Page 413
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Reactions......Page 414
General Description of MOCVD Growth Systems......Page 416
Properties of Common Metalorganics And Hydrides Used For Mocvd......Page 419
GaAs and AlGaAs......Page 422
InAlGaP/GaAs......Page 423
IV–VI Semiconductor Compounds......Page 424
Other Developments In Mocvd......Page 425
References......Page 426
Introduction......Page 428
History of Pollution Prevention......Page 429
How Does one Define Pollution Prevention?......Page 430
Drivers for Pollution Prevention......Page 431
The Recipe for Success......Page 434
Establishing the Program......Page 436
Implementation Phase......Page 437
Resources......Page 438
Engineering Evaluations of the Preferred Options......Page 439
When Should one Do Pollution Prevention?......Page 440
Program Elements—U.S. EPA and DuPont Chambers Works Waste Minimization Project......Page 441
Process Analysis—Replace Solvent with a Process Intermediate, Product, or Feed......Page 442
Conclusion......Page 443
References......Page 444
Glossary......Page 445
Historical Development of the Pulp and Paper Industry......Page 446
Furnish for Pulp and Paper......Page 447
Wood Quality......Page 448
Kraft Pulping......Page 449
Other Options......Page 450
Process Considerations......Page 451
The Range of Mechanical Pulping......Page 452
Prospectus......Page 454
Chemistry of Bleaching......Page 455
Papermaking......Page 457
Process Considerations in Papermaking......Page 458
Tissue:......Page 459
References......Page 460
Glossary......Page 462
Heterogeneous......Page 463
Classification......Page 464
Classification......Page 465
Advantages–Disadvantages......Page 466
Description......Page 467
Use of the Reaction Coordinate or Molar Extent of Reaction......Page 468
Rate Expressions......Page 470
General Reactor Design Equation......Page 471
Variable Volume Batch Reactors.......Page 472
 Ideal Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor Design Equations.......Page 473
Space Time......Page 474
Batch Versus Flow Reactors......Page 475
Special Reactor Configurations......Page 476
Classification......Page 477
Description......Page 478
Applications......Page 479
Description......Page 480
Classification......Page 481
References......Page 482
Glossary......Page 483
Equilibrium in Extraction Systems......Page 484
Rates of Mass Transfer......Page 486
Stagewise Processes......Page 487
Differential Contact......Page 488
Industrial Extraction Equipment......Page 489
Unagitated Columns......Page 490
Mixer–Settlers......Page 491
Pulsed Columns......Page 493
Mechanically Agitated Columns......Page 494
Centrifugal Extractors......Page 495
Organic Processes......Page 496
Antibiotics......Page 497
Food Processing......Page 499
Biopolymer extraction......Page 500
Nuclear Industry......Page 501
Phosphoric Acid......Page 502
Membrane Extraction......Page 503
References......Page 504
Glossary......Page 505
Amphoteric Surfactants......Page 506
The Hydrophilic–Lipophil Balance (HLB)......Page 507
Physical Properties of Surfactant Solutions......Page 508
Thermodynamics of Micellization......Page 510
Adsorption of Surfactant at the Solid/Liquid Interface......Page 511
Surfactants as Emulsifiers......Page 512
Surfactants as Dispersants......Page 513
Role of Surfactants in Stabilization of Emulsions and Suspensions......Page 514
Surfactants in Foams......Page 516
Application of Surfactants in Cosmetics and Personal Care Products......Page 517
Application of Surfactants in Pharmaceuticals......Page 518
Application of Surfactants in the Food Industry......Page 519
References......Page 520
Glossary......Page 521
History......Page 522
Gasification......Page 524
Synthesis......Page 526
Gas from Coal......Page 527
Liquids and Clean Solids from Coal......Page 529
Liquids from Oil Shale and Tar Sands......Page 531
Conversion Processes......Page 533
References......Page 534
Glossary......Page 535
Major Feedstocks and Products......Page 536
Chemistry of Pryolysis Gas-Phase Reactions)......Page 537
Kinetics of Pyrolysis......Page 538
Coke Formation......Page 539
Oxide Layer in Inner Surface of Coils in Furnaces......Page 540
Cracking Furnace and Reactor......Page 542
Product Gas Cooling and Compression......Page 545
Product Separation......Page 546
Cracking Reactor and Heat Recovery Equipment......Page 547
References......Page 548