Encyclopedia of Mycology

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MYCOLOGY
CONTENT OF VOLUME 1
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS FOR VOLUME 1
CONTENT OF ALL VOLUMES
EDITOR BIOGRAPHIES
PREFACE
Next Generation Sequencing: Transcriptomics
	The Rise of NGS Transcriptomics in Fungi
		Transcriptomics Through RNA-Seq
		NGS Transcriptomics to Identify Changes During Development and Growth Under Different Environmental Conditions
		NGS Transcriptomics to Decipher the Molecular Mechanism of Interactions With Other Organisms
	Perspectives of NGS Transcriptomics in Fungi
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
	Relevant Websites
The Cell Wall of Medically Relevant Yeasts and Molds
	Introduction
	The Candida albicans Cell Wall
	Chitin Synthesis
	beta-Glucans Synthesis
	Glycoproteins Synthesis
	The Candida albicans Cell Wall Proteome
	The Cell Wall Composition in Other Candida Species
	The Aspergillus Cell Wall
	The Fungal Cell Wall and the Development of Antifungal Drugs
	Immune Sensing and the Fungal Cell Wall
	References
The Fungal Chitinases
	Introduction
	Group A Chitinases
	Group B Chitinases
	Group C Chitinases
	Concluding Remarks
	References
GTPases in Hyphal Growth
	Hyphal Growth in Filamentous Fungi
		Cell Wall Synthesis
		The Spitzenkrper and Vesicles Pathway
	Structure and Action Mechanism of Small GTPases
		Structure
		Action Mechanism
		Classification
			Ras
			Rho
			Rab
			Arf
			Ran
	Function of Small GTPase in Hyphal Growth
		Ras
		Rho subfamily
			Rho
			Cdc42
			Rac
		Rab
	Arf
	References
Membrane Transporters, an Overview of the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Transportome
	Introduction
	Types of Transport Processes
		Simple Diffusion
		Facilitated Diffusion
			Channels
			Transporters or carriers
		Active Transport
			Primary active transporters
				P-type ATPases
				V-ATPases
				F-type ATPases
				ABC (ATP binding cassette) transporters
			Secondary transporters
				Antiporters
				Symporters
	Why Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi?
	AM Fungal Transportome
		Primary Active Transporters
			P-type ATPases
			ABC transporters
		Transporters of Macronutrient Ions
			Phosphate transporters
			Ammonium transporters
			Nitrate transporters
			Other transporters of inorganic ions
		Metal Transporters
			Zinc transporters
			Copper transporters
			Iron transporters
			Arsenite efflux pump
		Transporters of Organic Compounds
			Organic nitrogen transporters
			Sugar transporters
		Water Channels
	Concluding Remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
	Relevant Websites
Fungal Secondary Metabolism
	Introduction
	Biochemistry and Biological Impact of Fungal Secondary Metabolites
		Main Classes of Fungal Secondary Metabolites
			Polyketides
			Non-ribosomal peptides
			Terpenes and terpenoids
			Indole alkaloids
		Biological Functions and Ecological Roles of Fungal Secondary Metabolites
	Fungal Genes Involved in Secondary Metabolite Biosynthesis
	Regulation of Fungal Secondary Metabolism
		Pathway-Specific Regulators
		Regulation of Secondary Metabolism by Nutritional and/or Environmental Conditions
			pH regulation
			Regulation by carbon and nitrogen sources
			Redox status and iron levels
		Regulation Mediated by Chromatin Modifications
			Histone methylation
			Histone acetylation
	References
	Further Reading
Mycotoxins and Mycotoxigenic Fungi: Risk and Management. A Challenge for Future Global Food Safety and Security
	Introduction
	Social and Economic Impact of Mycotoxins
	Regulated Mycotoxins and Associated Fungi
		Aflatoxins
		Ergot Alkaloids
		Fumonisins
		Ochratoxin A
		Patulin
		Trichothecenes
		Zearalenone
		Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins
	Modified (Masked) Mycotoxins
	Emerging Mycotoxins
		Emerging Fusarium Mycotoxins
			Enniatins and beauvericin
			Fusaproliferin
			Moniliformin
		Emerging Aspergillus and Penicillium Mycotoxins
		Emerging Alternaria Mycotoxins
	Control and Management of Mycotoxins
		Pre-Harvest Interventions
		Post-Harvest Interventions
		Dietary Interventions
	Mycotoxins in a Global Warming Scenario
	Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulation of Mycotoxins
		Aflatoxins
		Trichothecenes
		Fumonisins
		Ochratoxins
	References
	Relevant Website
RNA Interference in Fungi
	The Discovery of RNA Interference
	The Core of RNAi Machinery: DCL, AGO and RdRp
	Different Classes of sRNAs are Involved in RNAi
	An Overview on RNAi and sRNAs in Fungi
		Defense-related RNAi Pathways
			Defense against mobile elements and transgenes
			Defense against viruses
		Endogenous Regulatory RNAi Pathways
	Loss of RNAi in Some Fungi
	The Role of sRNAs and RNAi in Inter-kingdom Interactions
	References
The MAP Kinase Network As the Nervous System of Fungi
	Introduction to Candida albicans Biology
		Morphological Transitions
		Fungal Recognition by Immune Cells and Activation of Host Defenses
	Fungal Adaptation Through MAPKs-Mediated Signaling
		HOG Pathway: Sensing Environmental Stress
		Mkc1-Mediated Pathway: Maintaining Cell Integrity
		Cek1-Mediated Pathway: The SVG Pathway
		Cek2: The Pheromone Response
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Communication With Plants
	Interaction of Fungi With the host
		Necrotrophic Fungi
		Biotrophic Fungi
		Hemibiotrophic Fungi
	Host Sensing
		How do Fungi Perceive the Host?
		Plant Surface Detection
		Cell Detection
		Root Detection
		Fungal Chemotropism
	How Plants and Fungi Communicate
		By-Passing Plant Defenses
		Lipid Signaling
		Fatty Acids
		Oxidized Fatty Acids: The Oxylipins
		Sphingolipids
		Sphingolipids Main Component of Lipid Rafts
		How Fungus-Host Communication can Influence the Virulence and the Secondary Metabolism
	References
	Further Readings
Genome Evolution of Fungal Plant Pathogens
	Introduction to Filamentous Plant Pathogens
	Large-Scale Genome Dynamics: Evolution of Size
		Genome Contraction
		Genome Expansion
			Transposable elements (TEs) and effector evolution
			Whole genome duplication (WGD) and polyploidy
			Lateral DNA transfer and hybridization: Mechanisms of gene exchange between species
			Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) and horizontal chromosome transfer (HCT)
			Hybridization through sexual mating and by vegetative fusion of fungal hyphae
		Rapid Evolution of Virulence Associated Genes: One, Two, Multi-Speed Genomes
			Mechanisms of mutations
		Introduction of Alien Pests in New Environments: Phytophthora Ramorum, as Example of Genetic Diversification in...
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Readings
Mycoviruses: A Hidden World Within Fungi
	Introduction
	Distribution and Phylogeny
	Evolutionary Theories
	Impact on Fungal Behavior
	Mycoviruses as Triggers and Target of RNA Silencing Machinery
	Biotechnological Applications and Future Perspectives
	References
Transposable Elements in Fungi: Coevolution With the Host Genome Shapes, Genome Architecture, Plasticity and Adaptation
	Introduction: The Extensive Diversity of Repetitive DNA in Fungal Genomes
	The Fine-Tuned Regulation of Transposable Elements Proliferation
		Epigenetic Silencing due to Histone Methylation
		DNA Methylation
		Small RNA Silencing
	Host Population Dynamics Impact Transposable Element Landscapes in Fungi
		The TE Burst and Decay Model
		New Transposable Element Insertions are Influenced by Selection and Genetic Drift
		How can Population Dynamics Lead to Differences in TE Content Among Species?
	Are Transposable Elements Essential for Rapid Adaptation?
		Transposable Element and Host Genome Compartmentalization
		Transposable Elements are Activated Under Stress
		Locus-Specific Effects of Transposable Elements Insertions
	Perspectives
	References
Aspergilli, More Than Just Fungi: Shaping the Last Decades of Model Systems
	Introduction
	What Aspergillus Taught us About Eukaryotic Genome Regulation and Maintenance
	Drug Resistance Runs Rampant
	What About the Contribution of Aspergillus in the Comprehension of Cell Biology and Eukaryotes Development?
	The Evolutionary Dynamics Explained
	Spilling the Beans on the Antioxidant Potential of Bioactives
	A Stairway to System Biology
	References
	Relevant Websites
Proteomics in Mycorrhizal and Plant Pathogenic Fungi
	Introduction
		Ectomycorrhizal and Endomycorrhizal Fungi
		Proteomics of Plant Pathogens Fungi
			Botrytis cinerea
			Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
			Fusarium graminearum
			Magnaporthe oryzae
	Concluding Remarks
	References
	Further Reading
Host-Induced Stress Response in Human Pathogenic Fungi
	Introduction
	Response to Nutrient Limitation in Human Host Environments
		Carbon Limitation
		Iron Limitation
		Oxygen Limitation
	Oxidative Stress Response
	Nitrosative Stress Response
	pH Stress Response
	Weak Acid Stress Response
	Response to Stress During Phagocytosis
	Biofilm Formation as a Stress Response
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Biodegradation of Aromatic Toxic Pollutants by White Rot Fungi
	Introduction
	White Rot Fungi: The Lignin-Degrading Fungi
		Phanerochaete chrysosporium Burdsall
		Trametes (Coriolus) versicolor (L.) Lloyd (“Turkey Tail”)
		Pleurotus ostreatus (“Fries”) Kummer (“Oyster Mushroom”)
	Degradation of Major Groups of Organic Pollutants
		Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
		Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
		Textile Dyes
		Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
	Can the Knowledge Accumulated on Biodegradation Lead to Mycoremediation?
	References
Fungal Chitin and Chitosan
	Introduction
	Fungal Cell Wall
	Physiological Function of Fungal Chitin and Chitosan
	Fungal Cell Wall Composition and Architecture
	Biosynthesis of Cell Wall Polysaccharides
	Chitin Synthases and Synthesis
	Biosynthesis of Chitin and Chitosan
	Physicochemical Properties
		Solubility
	Molecular Weight
	Degree of Deacetylation
	Occurrence and Biological Functions in Nature
	Industrial Production of Chitin and Chitosan
	Features of Fungal Chitin and Chitosan Production
	Chitin and Chitosan-Producing Fungi
	Applications of Chitin and Chitosan
		Biological Properties
	Industrial Applications
	Agricultural Applications
	Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications
	Fermentation Systems of Fungal Chitin and Chitosan
	Conclusion
	References
Chitin Synthases in Fungi
	Introduction
	Classification of Fungal Chitin Synthases
	Evolution of Fungal Chitin Synthases
	Functions of Chitin Synthases
	References
Glucose Metabolism and Use of Alternative Carbon Sources in Medically-Important Fungi
	Introduction
	Glucose Metabolism in Medically-Important Fungi
	Alternative Carbon Metabolism in Medically-Important Fungi
	Pathways for Alternative Carbon Metabolism and Their Roles in Fungal Pathogenicity
		Beta Oxidation of Fatty Acids
		The Glyoxylate Cycle
		Gluconeogenesis
	Glucose and Alternative Carbon Metabolism: A Prospective Therapeutic Target for Fungal Diseases
	Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
Ergosterol Synthesis
	Introduction
	Physiological Function of Ergosterol
	Ergosterol Biosynthesis
	Subcellular Localization of Ergosterol Enzymes
	Regulation of Ergosterol Synthesis
		Post-Translational Feedback Regulation
		Transcriptional Regulation
	Inhibitors of Ergosterol Synthesis and Ergosterol Target
	Conclusion
	References
Fungal Volatile Organic Compounds
	Introduction
	Volatilome and Volatome
	Chemical Analysis
	Fungal VOCs as Odorants
	Foods and Flavors
	Biotechnology
	VOCs for Indirect Detection of Fungal Growth
	Chemical Ecology
	VOCs as Antimicrobial Agents
	Eight Carbon VOCs
	Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
	Relevant Website
Outline of Ascomycota
	Introduction
	Introduction to Ascomycota
	Life Modes and Habitats
	Species Number
	Attempts of Higher-Level Classification of Ascomycota
	One Fungus, One Name
	Current Status
	Orphaned Genera
	Novel Lineages Within the Phylum
	Future Perspectives and Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
	Relevant Websites
Structure and Development of Ascomata
	Introduction
	Morphology of Ascomata
	Ascomata Development in Model Systems
	Factors Affecting the Development of Ascomata
	Regulatory Networks Involved in the Development of Ascomata
	Concluding Remarks
	References
Laboulbeniomycetes, Enigmatic Fungi With a Turbulent Taxonomic History
	From Roland Thaxter to the Present: Synergy Among Mycologists, Entomologists, Parasitologists
	The Winding Road to Molecular Phylogenetics: Progress in the Study of Laboulbeniomycetes
	Thallus-Forming Ectoparasites
		Laboulbeniales
			First sightings
			Current versus estimated species diversity
			Museum collections, citizen science projects, and social media
			Classification of the order
			Notes on ecology
			Thallus morphology
				Receptacle
				Perithecium
				Appendage and antheridia
				Ascospores
		Herpomycetales
	Pyxidiophorales, Hyphal Mycoparasites
		Taxonomy and Phylogeny
		Morphology of Pyxidiophorales Life Cycle States
			Perithecial morphs
			Phialidic conidial hyphal morphs
			Ascospore-derived conidial morphs
		Fine-Tuned Life Histories
		Expanding Diversity
	Laboulbeniopsis Clade
	Chantransiopsis Clade
	Filling Knowledge Gaps
		Epilogue
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Relevant Websites
Phylogenetic Advances in Leotiomycetes, an Understudied Clade of Taxonomically and Ecologically Diverse Fungi
	Introduction
	Morphological and Ecological Diversity of Leotiomycetes
		Morphology
		Ecology
	Current Understanding of Evolutionary Relationships
		Challenges of Leotiomycetes Systematics
		Chaetomellales
		Cyttariales
		Helotiales
		Lahmiales
		Lauriomycetales
		Leotiales
		Lichinodiales
		Marthamycetales
		Medeolariales
		Micraspidales
		Phacidiales
		Rhytismatales
		Thelebolales
	Biases in Sampling of Leotiomycetes
		Distributional Unevenness
		Helotiales, a Mega-Order in Disarray
		Understudied Ecological Niches
	Future Research Perspectives
	Acknowledgements
	References
	Further Reading
Pezizomycetes
	Introduction
	Distribution and Ecology
	Morphological Features
		Ascomata
		The Hymenium
		The Ascus
		Ascospores
		Paraphyses
		Septal Structures
		Anamorphic States
	Genomes, Microbiomes, and Model Organisms
	Classification and Phylogenetic Studies
		Families
	Acknowledgments
	References
Outline of Basidiomycota
	Brief Introduction of Basidiomycota
	Advances on Phylogeny of Basidiomycota
	The Taxonomic System of Basidiomycota
	Outline of Basidiomycota
	References
Cantharellales Gäum
	Overview
	Phylogenetic Incongruences, Family Classification and The Polyphyly of Sistotrema
	Diversity, Current Knowledge and Issues in Species Delimitation
	Trophic Strategies
	Synopsis
	Families Previously Included in Cantharellales and Excluded Here
	References
Boletales
	Introduction
	Morphological Framework, Chemical and Ecological Features, Taxonomic Limits
	Brief Historical Overview and Current State of Knowledge
	Origins, Diversification and Historical Evolutionary Dynamics
	Symbiotic Partners, Mutualistic Interactions, Paleoecological Processes and Evolutionary Ecology
	Historical Biogeography, Paleo-biogeographical Dynamics and Distribution Patterns
	Notes on the Edibility, Toxicity and Poisonings, Therapeutic Properties, Ethnomycological Traditions, Cultivation,...
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Functional Traits of Stipitate Basidiomycetes
	The Rationale
	The Mycelium
		Morphological Traits
			Mycelial coverage, mycelial biomass
			Vertical distribution
			Hyphal cords and rhizomorphs
			Ectomycorrhizal mantles
			Extramatrical mycelia, exploration types
			Common mycorrhizal networks (CMN)
			Hyphal wall thickness
			Clamp connections
			Mitospores
			Mycelial cysts and cystidia
			Sclerotia and pseudosclerotia
		Physiological Traits
		Behavior
			Aerotropism
			Autotropism
			Chemotropism
			Phototropism
			Thigmotropism
			Mycelial persistence
			Host specificity
		The Basidiome
		Basidiome Size and Number
		Basidiome Architecture
		Hymenophores
		Basidiome Physiology
			Pigments
			Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
			Taste compounds
			Toxins
			Latex
			Texture
			Luminescence
		Basidiome Behavior
			Gravitropism (geotropism)
			Phototropism
			Thigmotropism
			Dwarfing
			Fairy rings
			Phenology
	The Spore
		Spores Size
			Discharge
			Wind dispersal
			Impaction
			Desiccation resistance
			Dormancy
			Germinability
		Spore Shape
			Discharge
			Wind dispersal
			Impaction, substrate attachment
			Dormancy
			Production (numbers)
		The Spore Wall
			Ornamentation
			Pigmentation
			Appendages
			Hydrophobicity
			Germ pore
			Wall thickness
			Plage (suprahilar depression)
	Guild-Specific Trait Syndromes
		Morphological Differences
		Physiological Differences
		Behavioral Differences
	Future Directions
	References
Fossil Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, With Notes on Fossil Lichens and Nematophytes
	Introduction
	Fungal Evolution
	Modes of Fossil Preservation
	Amber
	Impressions and Compressions
	Petrifactions and Permineralizations
	Indirect Evidence
	Fossils of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota
	Ascomycota
	Basidiomycota
	Lichens
	Nematophytes
	Future directions
	Permissions
	Acknowledgments
	Appendix 1 Citations for
	Appendix 2 Citations for
	References
	Further Reading
The Cultivation of Macrofungi
	Introduction
	Cultivation of Saprotrophic Species
		Main Steps
			Isolation
			Substrate, inoculum and incubation
			Cultivation and harvest
		Pests and Adversities of Cultivated Saprotrophic Mushrooms
	Cultivation of Ectomycorrhizal Species
		Ectomycorrhizal Plant Production
			Spore suspension inoculum
			Radical proximity
			Mycelium-based inoculum
		Adversities of Cultivation of ECM Mushrooms
	The Cultivation of Macrofungi for New Biotechnology
	Conclusions
	References
Macrofungi as Food
	Introduction
	Types of Edible Macrofungi
		Wild Macrofungi
		Cultivated Macrofungi
	Health and Nutritional Benefits Provided by Macrofungi
	Economic Value and Social Perspectives of Edible Macrofungi
	Seasonal Availability and Preservation
	Socio-Cultural Aspects of Macrofungi as Food
	Food Safety
	Conclusion
	References
Overview: Human Fungal Pathogens
	Acknowledgments
	References
Polyenes and Amphotericin B
	Introduction to Fungal Pathogens and Antifungal Drugs
	Amphotericin B. An Old Drug, But Still With Many Secrets Behind
	Mechanisms of Action
	Pore Formation at the Membrane
	Ergosterol Sequestration
	Beyond the Membrane: Oxidative Burst and Intracellular Damage
	Spectrum of Action and Resistance
	Amphotericin B Toxicity and Lipidic Formulations
	Clinical Uses of AmB
	Conclusions
	References
Azole Antifungal Drugs: Mode of Action and Resistance
	Glossary
	Introduction
	Antifungals in Clinical Use
	Definition of Resistance
	How Resistance is Determined? Antifungal Susceptibility Testing
	Azoles: Mode of Action
	Azole Drug Resistance Mechanisms
		Azole Resistance Mechanisms in Candida Spp.
		Azole Resistance Mechanisms in Aspergillus Spp.
	Conclusions
	References
Echinocandins
	Background and Structure
	Mechanism of Action, Spectrum of Activity, and Susceptibility Testing
	Resistance to Echinocandins
	Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
		Pharmacologic Properties
		Pharmacodynamics
	Clinical Use of Echinocandins
	Echinocandins in Special Populations
		Pediatrics
		Geriatric
		Pregnancy/Lactation
		Drug-Drug Interactions
	References
Allylamines, Morpholine Derivatives, Fluoropyrimidines, and Griseofulvin
	Introduction
	Allylamines
	Morpholine Derivatives
	Fluoropyrimidines
	Griseofulvin
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
New Targets for the Development of Antifungal Agents
	Introduction
	Cell Wall
		GPI Anchor
		Chitin Synthase
	Lipids
		Acetyl-CoA Synthetase
		Ergosterol Biosynthesis
			Squalene synthase (SQS)
			Sterol methyltransferase (SMT)
		Sphingolipid Biosynthesis
			Inositol phosphorylceramide synthase (IPCs)
			GlcCer synthase
	Efflux Pump
	Proton Pump
	Protein Synthesis
		Elongation Factor 2 (EF2)
		Transfer RNA Synthetase
	Folate Biosynthesis
		Dihydropteroate Synthase (DHPS)
		Dihydrofolate Reductase (DHFR)
	Cell Stress Regulators
		Calcineurin
		Heat Shock Protein 90 (Hsp90)
	Drug Repositioning
		Miltefosine (MFS)
		Sertraline
		Tamoxifen
		Verapamil
		Benzimidazoles
	Acknowledgments
	References
Immunotherapy of Fungal Infections
	Glossary
	Introductory Concepts
		Host-Microbe Interaction, Infection, Disease, Damage
		Host-Fungal Interaction and Virulence Factors
		Management of Fungal Diseases
			Current antifungal chemotherapy
			Rationale for immunotherapy
				Host immunity and antifungal defense
	Antifungal Immunotherapy
		Active Immunotherapeutic Modalities
			Fungal vaccines
				Specific challenges to fungal vaccine development
		Passive Immunotherapeutic Modalities
			Passive antibody therapy for fungal diseases
				Immunotherapy with mAbs
					Protective mAbs against fungal antigens
					Radioimmunotherapy
					Immunomodulation via mAb
				Specific challenges to development of mAb-based immunotherapies
			AMPs
			Killer toxins and killer peptides: A functionally different mAb and AMP-based approach
			Immunotherapy via nonspecific immunomodulation
				Cytokine therapy
				Immunotherapy of rare mold infections via immunomodulation
				The importance of negative immunomodulation as therapy for fungal infections
			Adoptive cell transfer
			Fungal allergy and immunotherapy
	Concluding Remarks
	References
Diagnosis of Fungal Infections
	Glossary
	Introduction
	Conventional Diagnostic Methods
		Culture
		Direct Visualization and Histopathology
		New Diagnostic Methods
		Antibody Detection
		Antigen Detection
			Detection of 1,3-beta-D-glucan (BDG) for diagnosis of fungal infection
			Detection of galactomannan (GM) and glycoproteins for diagnosis of IA
			Detection of capsular polysaccharide antigen (CPA) for the diagnosis of cryptococcosis
			Detection of mannan (MNN) for diagnosis of invasive candidiasis
			Detection of endemic fungal antigens (EFA) for the diagnosis of endemic fungal infections
		DNA-Based Methods/Molecular Methods
			PCR-based methods
			Non-PCR based methods
	Future Directions and Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
	Relevant Websites
Commensal to Pathogen Transition of Candida albicans
	Glossary
	Introduction: Candida albicans as Commensal and Pathogen
	Candida albicans as a Commensal: Living with the Host and Microbial Neighbors
		Fungal Factors That Contribute to C. albicans Survival in the Human Gut
		Morphology of C. albicans in the Gut
		Animal Models Used to Investigate C. albicans Commensalism in the Gut
		Candida albicans as Part of the Microbiota
	Features That Contribute to the Success of C. albicans as Pathogen
		Interaction of Candida albicans with Epithelial Cells
		Interaction of Candida albicans with the Immune System
		The Cell Wall as a Dynamic Factor in Candida-Host Interactions
		The Influence of Macronutrients on Candida-Host Interaction
		Acquisition of Micronutrients by C. albicans
	C. albicans Morphology - Does it Determine the Difference Between Commensalism and Infection?
	References
Candida psilosis Complex
	Glossary
	Candida parapsilosis Sensu Lato - General Introduction
	Candida parapsilosis Sensu Lato Complex - History
	Candida parapsilosis Sensu Lato - Epidemiology
	Candida parapsilosis Sensu Lato - Diagnostics and Treatment
	Candida parapsilosis Sensu Lato - Phylogeny
	Candida parapsilosis Sensu Lato - Genomics
		Candida parapsilosis Sensu Stricto - The Single
		Candida orthopsilosis - Keep on Hybridizing
		Candida metapsilosis - The Virulent Hybrid
	Candida parapsilosis Sensu Lato - Genetic Manipulation
	Candida parapsilosis Sensu Lato - Virulence
		Morphology
		Adherence and Biofilm Formation
		Secreted Enzymes
		Host Interaction
	Acknowledgement
	References
Candida auris: A New, Threatening Yeast
	Introduction
	Microbiological Characteristics
		Biology and Morphology
			Phylogenetic
			Colony morphology
			Cellular morphology
			Biochemical features
			Virulence
		Identification
		Antifungal Resistance
		Persistence on Hospital Environment
		Resistance to Disinfectant and Antiseptic Compounds
	Epidemiology
	Clinical Features
		Colonization
		Clinical Presentation
		Outcome
	Treatment
	Infection Prevention and Control
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
	Relevant Websites
Immune Response to Candida albicans Infection
	Glossary
	Introduction: Candida albicans, an Opportunistic Fungal Pathogen
	Initial Recognition of C. albicans, Innate Immune Responses
		PRRs Involved in C. albicans Detection
		Innate Immune Responses to C. albicans
		Epithelial Cells: The First Barrier Against Candida Invasion
		Killing of C. albicans Cells by Phagocytes: Macrophages and Neutrophils
		Innate Lymphoid and ϒδ T Cells
		Microbiome and Anti-C. albicans Defense Mechanisms
	Adaptive Immune Responses to C. albicans
		Dendritic Cells: Driving CD4plus T Helper Subset Differentiation
		CD8plus T Cells
		Humoral Responses: Antibodies
	Evasion of Host Defenses by C. albicans
	Emergency Myelopoiesis and Trained Immunity
	Final Comments
	References
	Further Reading
	Relevant Websites
Infections by Cryptococcus species
	Glossary
	Cryptococcus Neoformans and Cryptococcus Gattii: Main Features
	Classification of Cryptococcus Neoformans/Gattii
		Life Cycle
		Epidemiology of Cryptococcosis
	Cryptococcus in the Environment
		Virulence Factors
		Cryptococcal Capsule
		Melanin
	Cryptococcus as a Facultative Intracellular Pathogen
		Formation of Titan Cells
		Diagnosis and Treatment
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Reading
	Relevant Websites
Epidemiology of Infections Caused by Molds
	Aspergillosis
		Invasive Aspergillosis
	Azole-Resistant Aspergillus Infections
	Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis (CPA)
	Critical Care and Post-Influenza Aspergillosis
	Mucormycosis
	Fusariosis
	Other Hyaline Molds
	Conclusions
	References
Diseases Caused by Aspergillus fumigatus
	Glossary
	Introduction
	Clinical Manifestations of Aspergillus fumigatus Infections
		Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA)
		Allergic Aspergillus Sinusitis
		Aspergilloma
		Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis
		Invasive Aspergillosis
			Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis
			Other aspergillosis invasive syndromes
		Molecular Bases of Aspergillus fumigatus Virulence
	Conclusions
	References
	Relevant Websites
Mucormycoses
	Introduction
	Epidemiology and Burden of Disease
	Pathogenesis and Host Immune Response
	Molecular Pathogenesis of Mucorales
		Role of Morphogenesis
		Role of Iron uptake
		CotH Proteins and Angioinvasion
	Diagnosis
		Molecular diagnostics
	Treatment of Mucormycosis
		Surgery
		Currently Approved Antifungal Drugs
		Investigational Antifungal Drugs
		Adjunctive Therapies
	Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	Disclosures
	References
Epidemiology of Dimorphic Fungi
	Glossary
	Introduction
	Coccidioides immitis and C. posadasii
		Histoplasma capsulatum
	Sporothrix schenckii Species Complex
		Paracoccidioides spp.
		Blastomyces dermatitidis
		Talaromyces marneffei
	Emergomyces spp.
	References
Histoplasma
	Introduction
	Epidemiology
	Pathogenesis
	Clinical Features
		Acute Histoplasmosis
		Disseminated Histoplasmosis
		Chronic Pulmonary Histoplasmosis
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
		Acute Pulmonary Histoplasmosis
		Moderately Severe to Severe Acute Pulmonary Histoplasmosis
		Chronic Cavitary Histoplasmosis
		Disseminated Histoplasmosis
	References
Coccidioidomycosis: The Valley Fever
	Introduction
	History
		Early History: A Mistaken Identity
	Ecology and Life Cycle of the Desert Dust Fungus
		Emergence of Coccidioidomycosis as a Growing Threat
	Coccidioidomycosis is a Threat to Public Health in the Western Hemisphere
		Risk Factors
		Clinical Manifestations
		Coccidioides in the US Southwest
		Coccidioides in Latin America
	Virulence and Pathogenesis
	Treatment and Prevention
		Therapeutics
		Prophylaxis and Vaccination
	Authorship
	Conflict of Interest
	Acknowledgements
	References
Blastomyces and Blastomycosis
	Overview
	Historical Perspective
	Mycology and Phylogenetics
	Geography and Ecology of Blastomyces
	Epidemiology
	Pathogenesis, Virulence, and Host Defense
		Overview
		Molecular Regulation of the Phase Transition to Yeast
		Virulence Factors
		Molecular Regulation of the Phase Transition to Hyphae
	Immunology & Vaccine Development
	Clinical Manifestations of Blastomycosis
		Overview
	Human Blastomycosis
		Pulmonary Blastomycosis
		Disseminated Blastomycosis
		Blastomycosis in Pregnancy
		Blastomycosis in Immunocompromised Persons
	Diagnosis of Blastomycosis
	Treatment of Blastomycosis
	Outcomes and Mortality
	References
	Relevant Website
Paracoccidioidomycosis
	Introduction
	Morphological Aspects
	Epidemiological Aspects
	Laboratorial Diagnosis
	Pathogenesis and Histopathology
	Clinical Manifestations
	Treatment
	Prognosis
	Vaccine Development
	DNA Vaccine
	Antibodies
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
Sporotrichosis
	Introduction
	The Genus Sporothrix
		The Human Pathogenic Sporothrix Species
		Morphology and Dimorphism
		Fungal Biology and Ecology
		Putative Virulence Factors
	The Disease
		Epidemiology
		Clinical Presentations
		Pathogenesis
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Conclusions and Perspectives
	References
Advances in Genomics Research of Pneumocystis Species
	Introduction
	Pneumocystis Genomes
		Ploidy
	Comparative Genomics
		Genes Absent From the Genome
		Select Genomic Features of Pneumocystis
			Sexual replication
			Major surface glycoprotein superfamily
	Drug Targets, Gene Polymorphism and Drug Resistance
		Drug Resistance
		New Drug Targets and Therapies
	Conclusions and Future Directions
	References
Subcutaneous Fungal Infections
	Introduction
	Chromoblastomycosis
		Epidemiology
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical Features
		Differential Diagnosis
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Lobomycosis
		Etiology and Transmission
		Epidemiology
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical Features
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Mycetoma
		Epidemiology
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical Features
		Differential Diagnosis
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Subcutaneous Phaeohyphomycosis
		Epidemiology
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical Features
		Differential Diagnosis
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Entomophthoramycosis
		Epidemiology
		Pathophysiology
		Clinical Features
		Differential Diagnosis
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Prevention
	References
Superficial Infections of the Skin and Nails
	Introduction
	Superficial Mycoses
		Pityriasis Versicolor
		Tinea Nigra
		White Piedra
		Black Piedra
	Cutaneous Mycoses
		Dermatophytosis
		Candidiasis
		Dermatomycoses
	References
Genitourinary Fungal Infections (Other Than Vaginal Candidiasis)
	Introduction
	Definition and Diagnosis of Urinary Tract Diseases Caused by Fungi
	Epidemiology of Candiduria
	Microbiology
	Pathogenesis
	Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis
	Treatment
	Other Fungal Infection of Genitourinary Tract
	Acknowledgment
	References
Oropharyngeal and Vulvovaginal Candidiasis
	Introduction
	Epidemiology
	Pathogenesis
	Clinical Manifestations
		Oral Candidiasis
		Esophageal Candidiasis
		Vulvovaginal Candidiasis
		Syndromes Involving Candidiasis
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
	References
Fungal Infections of Human Mammary Gland During Lactation
	Breastfeeding
	Structure of the Mammary Gland
	Pathogenesis of Fungal Breast Infections
		Candida albicans
	Symptoms of Fungal Breast Infections
	Diagnosis of Breast Fungal Infections
	Treatment
	Prevention of Fungal Breast Infections
	Conclusions
	References
	Further Readings
Fungal Infections of the Central Nervous System
	Central Nervous System Fungal Infections
	The Cryptococcus Genus
	Cryptococcosis Epidemiology
	Cryptococcus “Travels” to the Brain
		Trojan Horse Model
		Paracellular Model
		Transcellular Model
	Cryptococcus “Passport” to Brain Travel
		Inositol
		Urease
		Phospholipase B1
		Laccase
		Metalloprotease 1 (Mrp1)
	Antifungal Alternatives for Treating Cryptococcal Meningitis
	References
	Further Reading
	Relevant Websites
Fungal Cardiac Infections
	Candida Species
		Pathogenesis
		Endocarditis
		Myocarditis
	Aspergillus Species
		Overview
		Pathogenesis
		Endocarditis
		Myocarditis
	Histoplasma Capsulatum
		Pathogenesis
		Endocarditis
		Myocarditis
	Blastomyces Dermatitidis
		Pathogenesis
	Coccidioides
		Pathogenesis
		Endocarditis
		Myocarditis
	Cryptococcus Neoformans
		Pathogenesis
		Endocarditis
		Myocarditis
	Zygomycetes (Phycomycetes)
	Miscellaneous Fungi
	References
	Further Reading
Fungal Ophthalmological Infections
	Introduction
	Fungal Keratitis
		Overview
		Epidemiology and Risk Factors
		Signs and Symptoms
		Diagnostic Workup
		Treatment
	Fungal Endophthalmitis
		Overview
		Epidemiology
		Signs and Symptoms
		Diagnostic Workup
		Treatment
	References
	Further Reading
AIDS-Related Mycoses
	Candidiasis
		Epidemiology
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnosis
		Management
			Prophylaxis
			Treatment
	Cryptococcosis
		Epidemiology
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnosis
		Management
			Drug therapy
			Raised intracranial pressure (ICP)
			Cryptococcal antigen screening
			Immune restoration and ART timing
	Histoplasmosis
		Epidemiology
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Pneumocystis Pneumonia (PCP)
		Epidemiology
		Pathophysiology and Clinical Presentation
		Diagnosis
		Management
			Antimicrobial therapy
			Adjunctive therapy
			Antiretroviral therapy
			Ventilatory support
	Emergomycosis
		Epidemiology
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnosis
		Management
	Talaromycosis
		Epidemiology
		Clinical Presentation
		Diagnosis
		Management
			Treating disease
			Primary and secondary prophylaxis
			Timing of ART
	References
	Further Readings
Fungal Infections in Transplant Recipients
	Introduction
	Candidiasis
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
		Prophylaxis
	Aspergillosis
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
		Prophylaxis
	Mucormycosis
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Cryptococcosis
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
	Endemic Fungal Infections
		Histoplasmosis
		Blastomycosis
		Coccidioidomycosis
	Pneumocystis Pneumonia
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
		Prophylaxis
	References
Fungal Infections in Cancer Patients
	Introduction
	Effects of Cancer Treatment on Immune Response to Fungal Infection
	Opportunistic Fungal Infections
	Endemic Fungal Infections
	Prevention of Fungal Infections in Cancer Patients
	Mycobiome
	Future Directions
	References
Fungal Infections in the Setting of Biological Therapies (in the Non-Transplant Host)
	Introduction
	Immune Cells and Signaling Pathways That Promote Fungus-Specific Host Defense
		Mucosal Candidiasis
		IFIs by Candida and Inhaled Molds
		Infections by Intracellular Fungi (Cryptococcus, Endemic Dimorphic Fungi and PJP)
	Fungal Infections in the Setting of Biological Therapies
		Lymphocyte-Depleting Mabs
		Biologics That Target Cytokine-Mediated Pathways
			Biologics that target IL-1 receptor (IL-1R) and IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) signaling
			mAbs that target IL-17R signaling
			TNF-alpha-targeting biologics
			IFN-gamma-targeting mAb
			GM-CSF receptor (GM-CSFR)-targeting mAb
		Complement-Targeting Biologics
		mAbs That Target Checkpoint Pathways
		SMKI
			SMKIs targeting BTK signaling
			SMKIs targeting JAK-STAT signaling
			SMKIs targeting CLR-Spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk)-CARD9 signaling
			SMKIs targeting MAPK and other intracellular pathways
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Relevant Website
Uncommon Yeasts and Molds Causing Human Disease
	Uncommon Yeast-Like Pathogens
		Malassezia Species
			Introduction
			Clinical presentation
			Diagnosis and identification
			Treatment and outcomes
		Pseudozyma Species
			Introduction
			Clinical presentation
			Diagnosis and identification
			Therapy and outcomes
		Rhodotorula Species
			Introduction
			Clinical presentation
			Diagnosis and identification
			Therapy and outcomes
		Saccharomyces Cerevisiae (Var Boulardii)
			Introduction
			Clinical presentation
			Diagnosis and identification
			Therapy and outcomes
		Saprochaete Species
			Introduction
			Clinical presentation
			Diagnosis and identification
			Therapy and outcomes
		Trichosporon and Cutaneotrichosporon Species
			Introduction
			Clinical presentation
			Diagnosis and identification
			Therapy and outcomes
	Phaeohyphomycosis
		Introduction
		Clinical Manifestations
			Cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis
			Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis
			Keratitis
			Fungal sinusitis
			Disseminated phaeohyphomycosis
		Common Species Causing Phaeohyphomycosis
			Alternaria species
			Bipolaris species
			Cladophialophora species
			Curvularia species
			Exophiala species
			Exserohilum rostratum
			Lomentospora prolificans
	Hyalohyphomycoses
		Fusarium
		Scedosporium
		Paecilomyces
		Scopulariopsis
	Emergomyces
	References
Fungal Infections in Children
	Introduction
	Candida Infections
		Neonates
			Invasive candidiasis
				Epidemiology
				Host
				Pathogen
				Disease manifestations and outcome
			Mucocutaneous candidiasis
				Epidemiology
				Pathogen and host
		Primary Immunodeficiency and Candida Infection
			Invasive candidiasis
			Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis
		Diagnosis
			Culture
			Fungal antigen and molecular testing
	Aspergillus Infections
		Invasive Aspergillosis
			Epidemiology
			Organism
			Pathogenesis
			Clinical
			Diagnosis
				Radiologic features
				Culture
				Fungal antigen and molecular studies
	Antifungal Treatment in Children With IFD
	References
e9780128199909v2_WEB
	Cover
	ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MYCOLOGY
	CONTENTS OF VOLUME 2
	LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS FOR VOLUME 2
	CONTENT OF ALL VOLUMES
	Elderly Exposure to Fungi: A Review Study
		Introduction
		Methodology
			First Step
			Second Step
			Third Step
		Results and Discussion
		Conclusion
		Appendix A Supplementary Material
		References
		Further Reading
	Exposure to Fungi in Health Care Facilities
		Epidemiology of Nosocomial Fungal Infections
			Candida
			Aspergillus
		Mucorales
			Fusarium
		Other Fungi Associated With Hospital Infections
		Novel Methods and Future Perspectives
		Final Remarks
		References
		Further Reading
		Relevant Websites
	Integrating Fungi in the Drinking Water Regulation and in Guidelines for Materials in Contact With Drinking Water. Is...
		Introduction
		Why are Fungi in Drinking Water a Present and a Future Legislation Problem?
			Regulation and Legislation
			The Lack of Knowledge on the “Core Fungal Species” Connected to the General Water Quality and/or Human Diseases
			Setting Equivalent Methods for Enumeration or Cultivation of Fungi
			Correct and Uniform Identification of Fungi
		Exploring Fungi in Water Distribution Systems
			“Core Species” and Diversity of Fungal Communities Depend on the Main Raw Water Source
			The Most Common Fungi Isolated From European End-Point Drinking Water
		Fungal Effect on Used Building Materials in Water Distribution Networks
			Colonization and Biodegradation of Materials in Contact With Drinking Water Induced by Water-Related Fungi
		How Big is the Health Risk Due to Fungal Presence in Tap Water for End-Point Users?
			Development of Fungal Disease due to Contaminated Water
			Indirect Health Effects Due to the Secretion of Fungal Secondary Metabolites
		Conclusions
			Lowering the Effect of Water-Borne Fungi on Construction of Water Networks
			Lowering Effect of Water-Borne Fungi on Human Health
		Funding
		References
	Mycological Studies in Cultural Heritage
		Biodeterioration, Fungi and Cultural Heritage
		Fungal Biodeterioration Mechanisms and Impact on Cultural Heritage
			Organic Supports: Paper Based Objects
			Organic Supports: Photographic Collections
			Inorganic Supports: Stone Artefacts and Monuments
			Inorganic Supports: Ceramics and Glazed Tiles
		Treatment and Preventive Measures for Fungal Contamination in Cultural Heritage
		References
	How to Asses Fungal Contamination in School Environments
		Introduction
		Materials and Methods
		Results
		Discussion
		References
	Airborne Fungi in Workplace Atmospheres: Overview of Active Sampling and Offline Analysis Methods Used in 2009-2019
		Introduction
		General Presentation of the Reviewed Articles
		Overview of Active Samplers Used for Airborne Fungi Characterization in the Workplace Atmospheres
			Inertial Impactors
			Filtration Samplers
			Liquid Samplers/Impingers
			Static Versus Personal Sampling
		Overview of Downstream Analyses Used for Airborne Fungi Characterization in the Workplace Atmospheres
			Culture-Based Methods/Overview
			Culture-Based Methods/Enumeration of Culturable Fungi
			Culture-Based Methods/Identification of Culturable Fungi
			Culture-Independent Methods/Generality
			Culture-Independent Methods/Microscopic Analysis
			Culture-Independent Methods/Molecular Methods
			Culture-Independent Methods/Metabolites Analysis
		Conclusion
		Appendix A Supplementary Information
		References
	Fungal Contamination of Sawmills
		Introduction
			Fungi as Occupational Health Risks at Sawmills
		Fungal Exposure in Sawmills
			Exposure Measurements and Identification by Cultivation of Aerosol Samples From Sawmills
			Exposure Assessment of Both Live and Dead Fungi by Microscopy
			Fungal Fragments - A Large Part of Fungal Aerosol in Sawmills
			Revelation of the Sawmill Mycobiome by Metabarcoding
			Bioactive Fungal Components in Sawmill Aerosol
			Sawmills as Potential Reservoirs of Azole Resistant Fungi
		Determinants of Fungal Exposure in Sawmills
			Wood Type
			Departments
			Seasons
			Other Factors That Impact Fungal Exposures at Sawmills
			Reducing the Exposure to Fungi
		Health Effects of Fungal Aerosol Inhalation in Sawmills
			Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis (HP)
			Other Inflammatory Airway Responses Among Sawmill Workers
			Immune Modulating or Positive Effects of Fungal Diversity
		Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		Appendix A Supplementary Material
		References
		Relevant Websites
	Next-Generation Sequencing in Environmental Mycology. A Useful Tool?
		Introduction
		Environmental Exposure to Fungi
		Cultivating Fungi
		High-Throughput Sequencing
			High-Throughput Sequencing Platforms
			Bioinformatics
		Conclusion
		References
		Relevant Websites
	Fungal Contamination of Swimming Pools and Fitness Centers
		Introduction
		Materials and methods
		Results
		Discussion
		Conclusions
		References
	Occupational Fungal Exposure and Assessment on Animal Production
		Introduction
		Materials and methods
		Results
		Discussion
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further Reading
	Fungal Prevalence on Waste Industry - Literature Review
		Introduction
		Materials and Methods
		Results
		Discussion
		Conclusions
		References
	Aspergillus in Indoor Environments
		Sources of Mold and Mold-Derived Fragments or Metabolites and Elevated Mold Exposure
		What is Aspergillosis?
		Is Aspergillosis Community Acquired or a Hospital-Associated Infection?
		Investigation of Indoor Biotic Fungal Communities
		General Considerations of Aspergillus Growth and Proliferation
			Nutrients
			Water
			pH
			Oxygen
			Temperature
			Light
		Where Does Aspergillus Proliferate?
			Soil
			Water
			Water-Damaged Building Materials
			Colonization of Buildings and Building Fabric
		Is Dust a Biotic Environment That Supports the Survival of Aspergillus?
		Aspergillus Spore Dispersal in Indoor Air
		Numbers of Inhaled Conidia
		Diversity of Molds in Social Housing
		Does the Presence of Aspergillus in Home Environments Present a Risk Factor for Invasive Aspergillosis?
		Aspergillus Mycotoxins in Indoor Environments
		Aspergillus and Hospital Environments
		Is the Presence of Aspergillus Fumigatus in Indoor Environments Reflected in the Mycobiome of the Respiratory Tract?
		References
		Further Reading
		Relevant Websites
	Fungal Exposure in Agricultural Environments - A Review
		Introduction
		Materials and Methods
		Results
		Discussion
		Conclusions
		References
		Further Reading
	Fungal Contamination of Beaches
		Introduction
		The Fungal Flora in Beaches
		The Ecosystem
		Human and Animal Impact on Beach Contamination
		The Relevance of Beach Contamination on Human Health
		Guidelines/Recommendations
		Summary
		References
		Relevant Websites
	Fungal Exposure and Relevant Recreational Settings
		Fungi and Recreational Water Environments
		Exposure
			Swimming Pools
			Sunbathing
			Water Sports
		Cave Exploration
		Gardening and Camping
		Sandboxes
		Climate Change - The Game Changer
		Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA)
		Conclusion
		References
		Further Reading
	Assessment of Aspergillus Section Fumigati in Occupational Environments - A Bibliographic Review
		Introduction
		Materials and methods
		Results
		Discussion
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further Reading
	Screening of Fungal Azole Resistance in Different Environmental Samples
		Introduction
		Materials and Methods
		Results
		Discussion
		References
		Further Readings
	Assessment of Azole Resistance in Healthcare Facilities
		Introduction
		Materials and methods
		Results
		Discussion
		References
	Climate Change and Aflatoxins Contamination in the Iberian Peninsula
		Introduction
		Are Aflatoxins a Current Concern in the Iberian Peninsula?
		Climate Change and the Impact on Aflatoxins Contamination and the Risk of Human Exposure
		Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	The Usefulness of Human Biomonitoring in the Case of Mycotoxins Exposure Assessment
		Human Biomonitoring - What it is?
		Biomonitoring as an Exposure and Risk Assessment Tool
		Biomonitoring Data to Support Risk Management Measures and Regulatory Actions
		What is a Mycotoxin and How We Can be Exposed?
		The Usefulness of HBM in the Case of Mycotoxins Exposure Assessment
		References
		Further Reading
	Mycotoxins as Endocrine Disruptors - An Emerging Threat
		Introduction
		Zearalenone
			Main Characteristics
			Metabolism of Zearalenone
			Mode of Action and Toxicity
			Occurrence of Zearalenone in Food
		Alternaria Toxins
			Main Characteristics
			Mode of Action and Toxicity
			Occurrence of Alternaria Toxins in Food
			Metabolism of Alternaria Toxins
			Biomonitoring and Toxicokinetic Studies
			Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	Fungi in Milk and in Dairy Products
		Introduction
		Fungi and Yeasts in Milk
		Fungi and Yeasts in Dairy Products
		Conclusions
		References
	Profile of Fungi in Dietary Supplement, Based on Plant Raw Material
		Introduction
		Occurrence of Fungi in Plants and Dietary Supplements - A Global Problem
		Conclusions
		References
		Further Reading
	Molds in Food Spoilage
		Introduction
		Diversity of Spoilage Fungi
		Xerophilic Fungi
		Heat-Resistant Molds (HRM)
		Preservative-Resistant Molds (PRM)
		Anaerobic Fungi
		Psychrophilic and Psychrotolerant Fungi
		Mold Spoilage Assessment
		Conclusion
		References
	Mycobiota Causing Diseases in Pets
		Do Fungi Need to Be Pathogenic?
		Ecology of Pathogenic Fungi
		Microscopic Mycobiota Able to Cause Diseases in Pets, Incl. Captive Animals
		Macroorganism Histopatological Responses to Subcutaneous and Systemic (Deep) Mycoses
		Human Health Risks When Working With Medically Important Fungi
		Serological Methods to Diagnose Systemic Mycoses (; Seyedmousavi, 2019; Barrs et al., 2015)
		Antifungal Therapy Applicable in Pets’ Treatment
		Conclusion
		Potential Conflict of Interest
		References
	Production of Native and Recombinant Enzymes by Fungi for IndustrialApplications
		Introduction
		Fungal Hosts for Industrial Enzyme Production
			Aspergillus
			Trichoderma
		Fermentation Technologies for Fungal Enzymes Production
			Solid-State Fermentation
			Submerged Fermentation
		Application of Fungal Enzymes
		Commercial Native Enzymes From Fungi
			Amylases
			Proteases
			Xylanases
			Pectinases
			Glucose Oxidase and Catalase
			Cellulases
			Glucoamylase
		Commercial Heterologous Enzymes From Fungi
		Genetic Strain Improvement for Native and Heterologous Enzyme Production
		Enzyme Discovery
			Genome Mining and Functional Metagenomics
			Protein Engineering Approaches
		Conclusion
		References
	Fungal Laccases as Biocatalysts for Wide Range Applications
		General Aspects of Laccases
			Catalytic Site and Reaction Mechanism of Laccases
			Laccase Mediator Systems
		Heterologous Expression of Fungal Laccases
		Biotechnological Applications
			Pulp and Paper Industry
			Textile Industry
			Waste Treatment
			Food and Beverages
			Biosensors
			Laccases in Organic Synthesis
				Oxidative coupling and polymerization reactions catalyzed by laccase
				Synthesis of polyaniline catalyzed by laccase
		Conclusions
		References
	Fungal Lignin-Modifying Peroxidases and H2O2-Producing Enzymes
		Plant Cell Wall Structure and Composition
			Lignin
			Plant Cell Wall Carbohydrates
		Lignin-Modifying Fungi
			White-Rot Fungi
			Brown-Rot Fungi
			Grey-Rot Fungi
			Soft-Rot Fungi
		Class II Fungal Heme Peroxidases
			Manganese Peroxidase
			Lignin Peroxidase
			Versatile Peroxidase
			Structural Properties of Class II Peroxidases
			Evolutionary Background of Class II Peroxidases
		H2O2-Producing Enzymes
			Glucose-Methanol-Choline Oxidoreductases
			Copper Radical Oxidases
			Glucooligosaccharide Oxidases
		Potential Applications of Fungal Lignin-Modifying Peroxidases and H2O2-Producing Enzymes
		Concluding Remarks
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Relevant Websites
	Fungal Peroxygenases - A Versatile Tool for Biocatalysis
		Introduction
		General Aspects
			Phylogeny
			Reaction Cycle
			Structural Insights
		Applicability of UPOs
			Wild-Type UPOs
			Recombinant UPOs
			pH and Temperature Stability
			UPO Inactivation by Peroxide
			Peroxide Supply
			Immobilization
		Reactions Catalyzed by UPOs
			Carbon Oxygenations
				Hydroxylations (sp3)
				Epoxidations (sp2)
				Alkynes (sp1)
				Limitations
			Oxygenation of Heteroatoms
			Halogenations
		Conclusions and Outlook
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Fungal Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases (LPMOs): Biological Importance and Applications
		Introduction
		The Discovery of LPMOs and Basic Structural and Functional Information
		Occurrence of LPMOs and LPMO-Like Proteins in Fungi
		Assaying LPMO Catalysis
		Interplay With Other Fungal Redox Enzymes
		Applications: Cellulose Saccharification and Fibrillation
		Future Perspectives
		References
	Applications of Fungal Cellulases
		Introduction
		Cellulose
		Cellulose Hydrolyzing Enzymes
		Biotechnological Applications of Fungal Cellulases
			Fungal Cellulases in Food, Feed and Beverage Industries
			Textile and Detergent Industries
			Pulp and Paper Industry
			Biorefineries
			Agriculture
		Improvement of Fungal Cellulases and Their Production
			Forward Genetics
			Protein Engineering
			Overexpression and Promoter Engineering
			Manipulation of Transcriptional Regulators
			Epigenetic Engineering and CRISPR/Cas9
		Concluding Remarks
		References
		Further Reading
		Relevant Website
	Applications of Fungal Hemicellulases
		Introduction
		Applications of Hemicellulases
		Bio-Bleaching
		Bio-Scouring
		Biorefining
		Wine and Fruit Juice Clarification
		Oligosaccharide Generation
		Detergent Additives
		Bakery
		Animal Feed Up-Gradation
		Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further Readings
		Relevant Websites
	Applications of Fungal Pectinases
		Introduction
		Pectin Structure and Depolymerization
		Pectinase Production
		Biotechnological Applications
			Juice Production
			Wine Production
			Olive Oil Extraction
			Tea and Coffee Production
			Extraction of Phytopigments
		Bio-Scouring of Cotton
			Biofuel Production
		References
		Further Reading
		Relevant Website
	Fungal Biotechnology: Fungal Amylases and Their Applications
		Introduction
		Starch, the Natural Substrate for Amylases
		Role of Amylases in Starch Hydrolysis
			alpha-Amylases
			Glucoamylases
			Starch Binding Domain (SBD)
		Application of Amylases
			Production of High-Fructose Corn Syrups
			Biofuel Production From Starch
			Food and Beverage Markets
			Amylase in Animal Feeds
			Detergent Industries
			Textile and Paper-and-Pulp Industries
			Clinical and Medicinal Applications
		Production of Industrial Amylases
			Recombinant Production of Amylases
			Amylolytic Strains for Biofuel Production
			Searching for Novel Amylases
		Future Outlook
		References
		Further Reading
		Relevant Websites
	Applications of Fungal Inulinases
		Introduction
			Inulin: General Introduction, Distribution, Annual Production and Availability
			Inulinases: Characteristics, Production and Heterologous Expression
		Applications of Inulinases
			High Fructose Syrup Production
			Production of Prebiotic Fructooligosaccharides
			Bioethanol Generation
			Single Cell Oil (SCO) Production
			Citric Acid and Lactic Acid Production
			Single Cell Protein and Tequila Production
			Immobilized Inulinases
		Conclusion
		References
		Relevant Websites
	Fungal Proteases: Current and Potential Industrial Applications
		Introduction
		Fungal Proteases
		Fungal Proteases in Industry
			Proteases for the Food Industry
				Dairy
				Baking
				Brewing
				Protein hydrolysate production
			Proteases for the Pharmaceutical Industry
			Proteases for Leather and Fabric Processing
			Other Applications of Fungal Proteases
		Conclusion and Future Prospective
		References
	Multifarious Applications of Fungal Phytases
		Introduction
		Applications of Phytases
			Applications in Foods and Animal Feed
				Foods
				Animal feeds
				Phytases from transgenic plants and animals
			Applications in Aquaculture and Fish Farming
			Phytases in Plant Growth Promotion and Soil Amendment
			Utility of Phytases in Environmental Pollution Mitigation
			Use of Phytases in Generating Specific Inositol Phosphates With Therapeutic Applications
			Virtual Peroxidases Derived From Phytases and Their Uses
			Other Applications
		Commercially Available Phytases
		Conclusions
		References
		Further Reading
		Relevant Website
	Modification of Plant Carbohydrates Using Fungal Enzymes
		Introduction
		Carbohydrate Active Enzyme Classification
		Fungal Plant Carbohydrate Degrading Enzymes and Their Substrates
			Starch and Inulin Degrading Glycoside Hydrolases
			Cellulose Degrading Glycoside Hydrolases
			Xyloglucan Degrading Glycoside Hydrolases
			Pectin Degrading Glycoside Hydrolases and Polysaccharide Lyases
			Xylan Degrading Glycoside Hydrolases
			Mannan Degrading Glycoside Hydrolases
				Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs)
		Relevance for Industry
		References
		Further Reading
		Relevant Websites
	Production of Oligosaccharides by Fungi or Fungal Enzymes
		Introduction
		Fructooligosaccharides
		Xylooligosaccharides
		Chito-Oligosaccharides
		Galacto-Oligosaccharides
		Final Considerations
		References
		Further Reading
	Metabolic Modeling of Fungi
		Introduction
		Reconstruction of a Genome-Scale Network
			Automated Draft Reconstruction
			Manual Curation of the Draft
			Biomass Formation and Energy Requirements
		Approaches to Analyze Genome-Scale Metabolic Reconstructions
			Other Commonly Used Approaches to Study GEMs
				Dynamic flux balance analysis (dFBA)
				Flux variability analysis (FVA)
				Reduced cost analysis
				Integration of transcriptomics
				Integration of proteomics
				Integration of metabolomics
				Multi-omics integration
				Metabolic engineering
		Applications of Fungal Models
			Prediction of Phenotypes
			Metabolic Engineering
		Future of Metabolic Modeling of Fungi
		Conclusions
		Funding
		References
		Relevant Websites
	Production of Organic Acids by Fungi
		Introduction
		Why Do Fungi Accumulate Organic Acids?
		Biochemical Aspects of Organic Acid Accumulation by Fungi
		Description of the Production of Organic Acid
			Monocarboxylic Acids
				L-lactic acid
			Dicarboxylic Acids
				Oxalic acid
				L-Malic acid
				Fumaric acid
				Succinic acid
				Trans-2,3-epoxysuccinic acid (ESA)
			Tricarboxylic Acids
				Citric acid
				Itaconic acid
			Sugar Acids
				Gluconic acid
		Engineering Aspects of Fungal Organic Acid Production
		Acknowledgment
		References
		Relevant Website
	Biotechnological Advancements, Innovations and Challenges for Sustainable Xylitol Production by Yeast
		Introduction
		Biotechnological Production of Xylitol: The Yeast’s Role
			Xylitol Production by Native Xylose Utilizing Yeasts
			Exploiting Saccharomyces cerevisiae as Cell Factory for the Biotechnological Production of Xylitol
			Xylitol Production From Renewable Resources by Yeast
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further Reading
	Biotechnology of Wine Yeasts
		A Taste of Biotechnological History
		The Rising Power of Wine Yeast
		The Essence of Winemaking
		The Dominant Role of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae
		Genomics of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae
		Genetic Modification of Wine Yeast
		The Role of Non-Saccharomyces Yeast
		Concluding Remarks
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Ethanol Tolerance and Production by Yeasts
		Introduction
		Ethanol Production by Yeasts During the Fermentation Process
			Ethanol Fermentation by Saccharomyces Yeasts
			Fermentation by Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts
		Industrial Process for Bioethanol Production
		Molecular Basis of Fermentation-Associated Stress
			Ethanol Stress and Tolerance
		Yeast Improvement for Higher Ethanol Production and Tolerance
			Classical (Non-GMO) Optimization of Yeasts
				Evolutionary engineering
				UV and chemical mutagenesis
				Protoplast fusion
				Genome shuffling
			Genetic Engineering of Yeasts
		Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	The Biosynthesis of Fungal Secondary Metabolites: From Fundamentals to Biotechnological Applications
		Introduction
		Fungi Produce Bioactive Secondary Metabolites That Impact Human Societies
			Fungal Secondary Metabolites in Human Daily Life
			Fungal Secondary Metabolites in Fungal Daily Life
		The Fundamentals of Secondary Metabolite Production in Fungi
			A Diversity of Biosynthetic Enzymes
			The Gene Cluster Organization
			Tight Regulation of Secondary Metabolite Production
		Genomics of Fungal Secondary Metabolism
			Abundance of Biosynthetic Pathways in Fungal Genomes
			In Silico Prediction of Biosynthetic Gene Clusters
				Motif-dependent detection
				Motif-independent detection
			Strategies for Prioritizing the Study of Biosynthetic Gene Clusters
				Phylogeny-informed prediction
				Comparative genomics and gene cluster families
				Function-guided prioritization
			Linking Compounds to Biosynthetic Genes
		Activation of Silent Biosynthetic Pathways
			Modification of Culture Conditions
			Co-Cultivation of Microorganisms
			Genetic Modifications
				Pathway-specific activation
				Genetic manipulation of the global regulation
			Heterologous Expression of Biosynthetic Gene Clusters
		Engineering Biosynthetic Pathways: Chimeric Enzymes, Pathway Refactoring, Combinatorial Biosynthesis, Artificial Pathways
		Fungal Secondary Metabolite Production: Future Perspectives
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Relevant Websites
	Degradation of Homocyclic Aromatic Compounds by Fungi
		Introduction
			Names of Aromatic Compounds
		Plant Derived Aromatic Compounds
			Lignin
			Plant Derived Monomeric Aromatic Compounds
			Allelopathy
		Lignin Degradation
		Degradation of Aromatic Compounds by Fungi
			Hazardous Aromatic Compounds
				Benzene
				Ethylbenzene
				Toluene
				Xylenes
				Phenol
			Plant Derived and Food Related Aromatic Compounds
				Salicylic acid
				Vanillin
				Benzoic acid
				Cinnamic acid
		Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	Genetic Engineering for Strain Improvement in Filamentous Fungi
		Introduction
		Classical Genetic Engineering Approaches
			Genetically Modified Strains (GMOs)
			Genetic Engineering of Filamentous Fungi
				Protoplast-mediated transformation
				Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation
				Electroporation-mediated transformation
				Biolistic transformation
				Shock wave-mediated transformation technology
			Non-GMO Genetic Engineering Approaches
				UV mutagenesis
				Chemical mutagenesis
				Combined use of mutagenesis approaches
				Adaptive evolution
		Novel Strain Engineering Approaches
			CRISPR/Cas Technology
			Other Novel Strain Engineering Approaches
		Applications of Strain Improvement
			Gene Overexpression
				Replacing the promoter
				Increasing the gene copy number
			Gene Downregulation
				Gene deletion
				Point mutations
				RNA interference (RNAi)
		Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	Strain Improvement and Genetic Engineering of Trichoderma for Industrial Applications
		Introduction
		Untargeted Genetic Recombination by Classical Mutagenesis
			Forced Random Mutagenesis Resulted in the Creation of the Industrial Hypercellulolytic Strains of T. reesei
			In Vitro Sexual Crossing, the Dedicated Gift for T. reesei
			Protoplast Fusion and Parasexuality, the Cloud of Trichoderma Strain Improvement
		Targeted Genetic Recombination
			Recombination Based on Selective Markers
			Recombination Based on Markerless Systems
			Methods for Introducing Recombinant DNA Into Trichoderma
				Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation
				PEG-mediated protoplast transformation
		RNA Interference
		Promoter Engineering Approaches
		CRISPR/Cas9, the Next-Generation Genome Editing Revolution and Its Application in Trichoderma
		Acknowledgments
		References
		Further Reading
		Relevant Website
	Expression of Recombinant Fungal Proteins in Pichia Pastoris
		Introduction
		Construction of Expression Strains
			Vectors and Type of Induction System
			Strains
			Using Functional Host Strains
			Vectors
		Transformation
		Cultivation
			Medium and General Conditions
			Cultivation in a Jar Fermenter
		Post Cultivation and Purification
		Conclusion
		References
	Transcriptional Regulation: How Saprobic Fungi Tune the Production of Plant Cell Wall Degrading Enzymes
		Introduction
		The Molecular Basis of PCWDE Production
		Transcriptional Regulation of PCWDEs in Fungi
			Environmental Inducers and Their Corresponding Transcription Factors
				Sugars or their metabolic conversion products are the major inducers of genes encoding plant biomass degrading enzymes
				Other environmental inducers of genes encoding plant biomass degrading enzymes
			Environmental Repressors and Their Corresponding Transcription Factors
			Regulation of Transcription Factor Activity
			Methods for Discovery of Transcription Factors and Identification of Their Regulons
		Manipulation of Transcriptional Regulation of PCWDEs in Biotechnology
		Research Technologies and Approaches for Future Research
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Bioinformatics Approaches for Fungal Biotechnology
		Introduction
		Current Status of Fungal Genomic Analysis
			Bioinformatics Workflow and Tools for Genomics Analysis
			Examples of Fungal Genomic Studies
		Current States of Fungal Post-Genomics Analysis
		Transcriptomics
			Bioinformatics Workflow and Tools for Transcriptomics Analysis
			Examples of Fungal Transcriptomics Studies
		Proteomics
			Bioinformatics Workflow and Tools for Proteomics Analysis
			Peptide and Protein Identification
			Data Analysis of Quantitative Proteomics
			Biological Interpretation of Proteomics Results
			Examples of Fungal Proteomics Studies
		Metabolomics
			Bioinformatics Workflow and Tools for Metabolomic Analysis
			Examples of Fungal Metabolomics Studies
		Integrative Analysis of Multiple Omics
		Challenges and Perspectives for Future Bioinformatics Analysis
		References
		Further Reading
		Relevant Websites
	Production of Biofuels From Biomass by Fungi
		The Demand for Biofuels
			How do Plants Store Energy?
			How do Fungi Break Down Plant Polysaccharides?
			Transcription Factors
			Fungi in the Biofuel Industry
			Ethanol as a Biofuel
			First Generation Feedstocks
			Deconstruction of Lignocellulosic Material
			Breaking Down Cellulose
			Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Lignin Degradation
			Starch Degradation
			Lignocellulose Degrading Specialists
		Fermentation Processes
			First Generation Ethanol Fermentation
			Heterologous Xylose Degradation in S. cerevisiae
			Heterologous Starch Degradation in S. cerevisiae
			Biodiesel
		Conclusion
		References
	Oleaginous Fungi in Biorefineries
		Introduction
		Oleaginous Fungi and Their Advantages for SCO Production
		Limiting Factors of Large-Scale SCO Production
		Lipid Synthesis Mechanism of Oleaginous Fungi
			Biochemistry of Lipid Accumulation
			Lipid Profiles in Oleaginous Fungi
		Different Substrates for Microbial Lipids Production
			Conventional Carbon Substrates
			Lignocellulosic Biomass
		The Main Applications of Microbial Lipids From Oleaginous Fungi
			Biodiesel
			Functional Oils
				gamma -linolenic acid
				Arachidonic acid
				Eicosapentaenoic acid
				Docosahexaenoic acid
		Future Strategies for Productive Oleaginous Fungi
		Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
	Role of Fungi in Fermented Foods
		Introduction
		Foods Fermented With Filamentous Fungi
			Koji
			Soy Sauce
			Miso
			Tempeh
			Angkak
			Oncom
			Sufu
			Cheese
			Meat
		Fungi as Alternative Protein Sources
			Quorn
			Other Types of Mycoprotein
		Yeasts in Fermented Foods
			Injera
			Bread
			Cacao
		Beverages
			Wine and Fruit-Based Alcoholic Fermented Beverages
			Sake
			Beer
			Kombucha
			Beverages Produced Using Basidiomycetes
		Conclusion
		References
	The Application of Fungal Biomass as Feed
		Introduction
		Feed Market Prospects
		Compound Feed: Composition and Requirements
		Filamentous Fungi
		Fungal Cultivation Process
		Filamentous Fungal Biomass Composition
			Protein and Amino Acid Profile
			Fat and Fatty Acid Content
			Cell Wall Components
			Other Compounds
		Feed Applications
		Conclusions and Perspectives
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Applications of Fungal Polysaccharides
		Introduction
		Medicine and Pharmacy
			Medical Properties of Fungal Polysaccharides
				Antibacterial and antiviral effect
				Anticancer effect
				Antioxidant potential of polysaccharides
				Anti-diabetes polysaccharides
					Hepatoprotective effect of polysaccharides
					Immunomodulating activity
			Pharmaceutical Application
		Fungal Polysaccharides in Food Industry
			Food Additives
			Edible and/or Biodegradable Films
			Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals
			Animal Feed
		Cosmetics
		Environment and Agriculture
		Other Industrial Applications
		References
		Further Reading
	Development of Mycoherbicides
		Introduction
		What is Mycoherbicide
		Important Stages of Mycoherbicide Development
			General Considerations
			Selection of Appropriate Biocontrol Agent
			Biology and Ecology of Weed Pathogens
			Production, Formulation and Application
			Safety and Registration
			Alternaria or Colletotrichum?
		Potential Use of Fungal Secondary Metabolites
		Future Prospects
		References
	Biofungicides: An Eco-Friendly Approach for Plant Disease Management
		Introduction
		Biofungicide Agents
		Screening for Novel Biofungicides
		Biocontrol Mechanisms Against Fungal Plant Pathogens
		Plant Extracts as Potential Biofungicides
		Biofungicides in the Post-Genomic Era
		References
		Further Reading
	Degradation of Plastics by Fungi
		Introduction
		Plastics in the Environment
		Fungal Degradation of Polymers
			Polymers Containing Ester Bonds
				Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
				Polyurethanes (PU)
				Polylactid acid (PLA)
				Polycaprolactone (PCL)
				Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
				Polyamides (PA)
			Non-Hydrolysable Synthetic Polymers
				Polyolefins (polyethylene and polypropylene)
				Polystyrene (PS)
				Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
		Conclusions
		References
	Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters and Liquid Waste by Fungi
		Introduction
			The Role of Fungi in Industrial Wastewater and Liquid Waste Treatment
			Removal of Recalcitrant Organic Pollutants
				Mechanisms responsible for removal of recalcitrant organic pollutants
			Removal of Heavy Metals by Fungi
				Mechanisms of heavy metals removal
			Benefits of Fungal Consortia
			Emerging Trends in Fungal Wastewater Treatment Research
		Technical Aspects of Fungal Wastewater Treatment
			Principles of Microbial Wastewater Treatment
			Possible Technical Solutions
			Bioreactors
			Key Monitoring Parameters
		Challenges and Opportunities
		Conclusions
		References
	Antitumor and Immunomodulatory Compounds from Fungi
		Introduction
		Interrelations Between Immunomodulatory and Antitumor Properties
		Finding Fungi Producing Antitumor and Immunomodulatory Drugs
		Chemodiversity of Antitumor and Immunomodulatory Products from Fungi
		Mechanisms of Action of Antitumor and Immunomodulatory Compounds
			Antimitotic Agents and Cell Cycle Regulators
			Diverse Enzyme Inhibitory Properties
			Angiogenesis Inhibitors
			Antimetastatic Products
		Future Perspectives
		Acknowledgment
		References
		Further Reading
	Mycelium Materials
		A Non-Sustainable Economy
		Composite and Pure Mycelium Materials
			Pure Mycelium Materials
			Composite Materials
			Cell Wall Composition and Materials of Cell Wall Components
		Conclusions
		References
	Subject Index