Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MARINE MAMMALS
Copyright © 2018
Dedication
Contents
Contents by Subject Area
	Anatomy and Physiology
	Behavior and Life History
	Ecology and Population Biology
	Evolution and Systematics
	Human Effects and Interactions
	Organisms and Faunas
	Research Methodology
Contributors
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the First and Second Editions
Marine Mammal Species
	Order Carnivora
		Family Otariidae
		Family Odobenidae
		Family Phocidae
		Family Ursidae
		Family Mustelidae
	Order Cetartiodactyla
		Suborder Cetacea
		Family Balaenidae
		Family Neobalaenidae
		Family Eschrichtiidae
		Family Balaenopteridae
		Family Physeteridae
		Family Kogiidae
		Family Ziphiidae
		Family Platanistidae
		Family Iniidae
		Family Lipotidae
		Family Pontoporiidae
		Family Monodontidae
		Family Delphinidae
		Family Phocoenidae
	Order Sirenia
		Family Trichechidae
		Family Dugongidae
	References
A (1-49 pp.)
	Abundance Estimation
		I. Distance Sampling
			A. Line-transect Sampling
				1. Survey Design
				2. Assumptions
				3. Estimation
				4. Multiple-Covariate Distance Sampling
				5. Modeling Density Surfaces
				6. Uncertain Detection on the Transect Line
				7. Automated Design Algorithms and GIS
			B. Strip-Transect Sampling
			C. Cue Counting
			D. Acoustic Surveys
		II. Mark–Recapture
			A. Estimation from a Tagged Subset of Animals
				1. The Petersen Estimator
				2. Chapman’s Modified Estimator
				3. Assumptions
				4. Estimation of Pinniped Numbers by Mark–Recapture
				5. Mark–Recovery Methods
			B. Use of Natural Markings
			C. Spatially Explicit Capture–recapture
		III. Migration Counts
		IV. Colony Counts
		References
	Aerial Behavior
		I. Whale Breaching
		II. Dolphin Leaping
		III. Other Active Aerial Behaviors
		IV. Potential Reasons for Aerial Behaviors
		V. Fluking
	Age Estimation
		I. Introduction
		II. Growth Layer Terminology
		III. Calibration of Annual Layers
		IV. Tissues Commonly Used to Obtain Absolute Age Estimates
		V. Consistency and Repeatability of Absolute Age Estimates
		VI. Growth-Layer Tissues as Recording Structures
		VII. When Absolute Age Estimates are not Feasible
		References
	Aggressive Behavior, Intraspecific
		I. Male–Male Competition for Mates
			A. Pinnipeds
			B. Cetaceans
			C. Other Aquatic Mammals
		II. Size, Special Weapons, and the Consequences of Aggression
		III. Avoiding Fights
		IV. Group Raids and Other Forms of Male Harassment of Reproductive Females
		V. Female Agonistic Behavior
		VI. Aggression Toward Young
			A. Aggression Toward and Killing of Young by Males
			B. Abuse and Killing of the Young by Females
			C. Male Violent Behavior Toward Interspecific Females and Pups
		References
	Albinism
		I. Pigmentation
		II. Albinism and Marine Mammals
	Amazon River Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Ambergris
	Antarctic Fur Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Antarctic Marine Mammals
		I. Background
		II. Antarctic Species
		III. Diet
		IV. Exploitation and Recovery
		V. Conservation
		References
	Archaeocetes, Archaic
		References
	Arctic Marine Mammals
		I. Introduction
		II. Cetacean Community
		III. Pinniped Community
		IV. Polar Bears
		V. Important Habitats for Arctic Marine Mammals
			A. Sea Ice
			B. Polynyas
			C. Glacial Ice
			D. Nonice Habitats
		VI. Conservation and Management Challenges
		References
	Atlantic Spotted Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Australian Sea Lion
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Australian Snubfin Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
B (51-151 pp.)
	Baculum
	Baiji
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Baikal Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Balance
		I. Introduction
		II. Comparative Morphology
		III. Functional Interpretation
	Baleen
		References
	Baleen Whales (Mysticeti)
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
			A. Sound Production
			B. Swimming and Migration
			C. Social Activity
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Baleen Whales, Evolution
		I. Introduction
		II. Toothed Mysticetes
		III. Edentulous Mysticetes
		IV. Tooth Loss, Origin of Baleen, and Bulk Filter Feeding
		References
	Barnacles
		I. Life History
		II. Sessile Barnacles
		III. Stalked Barnacles
		IV. Barnacles and Marine Mammals
		References
	Basilosaurids and Kekenodontids
		I. Characteristics
		II. Taxonomy
		III. Life History
			A. Locomotion
			B. Feeding
			C. Habitat and Ecology
		IV. Phylogenetic Relationships
	Beaked Whales, Overview
		I. Classification
		II. Diagnostic Characteristics and Taxonomy
		III. Distribution and Ecology
			A. Habitat
			B. Behavior
			C. Vocalizations
			D. Diet
			E. Social Organization
		IV. Life History and Reproduction
	Bearded Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Behavior, Overview
		I. Foraging Behavior: How to Find, Select, and Process Prey
		II. Avoiding Predators and Defense From Predators
		III. Migration and Orientation
		IV. Competition and Agonistic Behavior
		V. Courtship and Sexual Behavior
		VI. Parental Behavior
		VII. Social Behavior and Social Relationships
		VIII. Conclusions
		References
	Beluga Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		VI. Life History
		VII. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Berardius Beaked Whales
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Biogeography
		I. Types of Distributions
		II. Ecology and History Determine Distribution
		III. Taxonomic Patterns
		IV. Conclusion
		References
	Biotelemetry
		I. Archival Tags
		II. Transmitting Systems
		III. Biological Insights
		IV. Challenges and Future Developments
		References
	Blubber
		I. The Structure of Blubber
			A. Tissue Characteristics
			B. Variation in Thickness and Proximate Composition
			C. The Lipids in Blubber
		II. Role of Blubber in Temperature Regulation: Heat Conservation and Dissipation
		III. Role of Blubber in Energy Storage and Water Balance
		IV. Role of Blubber in Locomotion
	Blue Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Bones and Teeth, Histology of
		I. Bone
			A. Bone Structure and Composition
			B. Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling
			C. Marine Mammal Bone
		II. Cementum
			A. Cementum Structure and Composition
			B. Marine Mammal Cementum
		III. Dentine
			A. Dentine Structure and Composition
			B. Marine Mammal Dentine
		IV. Enamel
			A. Enamel Structure and Composition
	Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, Common Bottlenose Dolphin
		I. Characters and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops aduncus, Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Bottlenose Whales
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Bowhead Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Bow-Riding
		References
	Brain
		I. Brain Size
		II. Forebrain
		III. Cerebellum
		IV. Cranial Nerves
		V. Conclusion
		References
	Breathing
		I. Introduction
		II. Breathing and Breathing Patterns
		III. Behavioral State
		IV. Social Aspects of Breathing
	Bryde’s Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Human Interactions
		References
	Burmeister’s Porpoise
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Bycatch
		I. Examples
			A. Eastern Tropical Pacific Tuna Purse Seine Fishery
			B. The Baiji
			C. The Vaquita
			D. Pinnipeds
		II. Causes for Concern
		III. Attempts to Resolve the Problem
		References
C (153-237 pp.)
	California, Galapagos, and Japanese Sea Lions
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans and Anthropogenic Effects
		References
	Callosities
	Cape and Australian Fur Seals
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Captivity
		I. The Debate
		II. The Impact
		III. Regulations for Collection, Care, and Maintenance
			A. International Regulations
			B. Care and Maintenance
		IV. Issues
			A. Experiencing Captive Marine Mammals
			B. Scientific Value of Captive Marine Mammals
			C. Captive Breeding for Conservation
			D. Rehabilitation
			E. Release
			F. Funding
			G. Military Use of Marine Mammals
	Caspian seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Cephalorhynchus Dolphins
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Cetacean Ecology
		I Introduction
		II. Habitat
		III. Prey
			A What Do Cetaceans Eat?
			B How Do Cetaceans Capture Prey?
			C How Do Cetaceans Locate Prey?
		IV. Competitors and Coexistence
		V. Predators
		VI. Schooling
		VII. Macroecology
		VIII. The Role of Cetaceans in Marine Ecosystems
	Cetacean Evolution
		I. Patterns of Evolution
		II. Ecology Past and Present
		III. Major Radiations
		IV. Evolutionary Processes
		V. Evolution and Geography
		VI. Life History Traits
		VII. Taxonomic Longevity
		VIII. Diversity and Disparity
		IX. Extinction
		References
	Cetacean Life History
		I. Methods of Studying Life History
		II. General Characteristics of Cetacean Life Histories
		III. Characteristics of Female Life Histories
		IV. Characteristics of Male Life Histories
	Cetartiodactyla
	Circulatory System
		I. Introduction
		II. General Anatomy
			A. Heart
			B. Arterial/Venous Systems
			C. Blood Volume
		III. Structural Adaptations
			A. Vascular Thermoregulatory Adaptations
			B. Aortic Bulbs/Windkessels
			C. Vascular Retia
			D. Inferior Vena Caval Sphincter
	Climate Change
		I. Ecological Scale
			A. Marine Mammals in Polar Regions
			B. Marine Mammals in Temperate and Tropical Regions
		II. Phenology
			A. Migration Timing
	Clymene Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Coloration
		I. Terminology
		II. Development
		III. Sexual Dimorphism
		IV. Geographic and Individual Variation
		V. Function and Evolution
		VI. Coloration as a Taxonomic Character
		IX. Ephemeral and Anomalous Variation
	Common Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Phylogeny
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Communication
		I. Chemical Communication
		II. Visual Communication
			A. Cetacea
			B. Pinnipedia
			C. Sirenia
		III. Tactile Communication
			A. Cetacea
			B. Pinnipedia
			C. Sirenia
		IV. Acoustic Communication
			A. Nonvocal Communication
				1. Cetacea
				2. Pinnipedia
				3. Sirenia
			B. Vocal Communication
				1. Mysticetes
				2. Odontocetes
				3. Pinnipedia
				4. Sirenia
		References
	Conservation
		I. What Is “Conservation”?
		II. International Efforts to Conserve Marine Mammals
		III. Regional and Bilateral Conservation Efforts
		IV. National Conservation Efforts
		V. Local and Individual Conservation Efforts
		VI. Protected Areas
		VII. Strategies to Enhance Survival and Reproduction
		VIII. Reduction of Environmental Pollution (Chemical, Acoustic, and Biological)
		IX. Reduction of Conflicts With Fisheries
		X. Reduction of Disturbance and Direct Harm From Vessel Traffic
		XI. Giving Economic Value to Living Wild Marine Mammals
		XII. Global Prognosis for Marine Mammal Conservation
		References
	Crabeater Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Culture and Social Learning
	Cuvier’s Beaked Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
D (239-280 pp.)
	Dall’s Porpoise
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Delphinids, Overview
		I. Introduction
		II. Taxonomic Overview
		III. Morphology
		IV. Distribution and Habitat
		V. Social Organization and Behavior
		VI. Feeding
		VII. Reproduction
	Dental Morphology
		I. Cetacea
			A. Archaeocetes
			B. Neoceti
		II. Sirenia
		III. Desmostylia
		IV. Pinnipedia
	Desmostylia
		I. Introduction
		II. Desmostylian Relationships, Origins, and Distribution
		III. Anatomy and Mode of Life
		IV. Diversity
	Dialects
		References
	Diet
		I. Methods to Determine
			A. Stomach and Intestine Contents
			B. Fecal Remains (Scats)
			C. Fatty Acids
			D. Stable Isotopes
			E. Direct Observations
			F. Calculating Proportions Consumed
			G. Comparison of Diet Methods
		II. What They Eat
			A. Cetaceans—Baleen Whales (Mysticeti)
			B. Cetaceans—Toothed Whales (Odontoceti)
			C. Pinnipeds (Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses)
			D. Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris)
			E. Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus)
			F. Sirenians
			G. Comparisons Among Groups
		References
	Distribution
		I. Distribution Patterns and Preferences
			A. Cetaceans
			B. Pinnipeds
			C. Sirenians
			D. Polar Bear and Sea Otter
		II. Determinants of Marine Mammal Distribution
			A. Demographic Factors
			B. Evolutionary Factors
			C. Ecological Factors
			D. Habitat-Related Factors
			E. Anthropogenic Factors
		III. Studying Marine Mammal Distribution
	Diving Behavior
		I. Fur Seals and Sea Lions (Eared Seals Otariid Marine Carnivores)
		II. Walrus (Odobenid Marine Carnivores)
		III. True Seals (Phocid Marine Carnivores)
		IV. Cetaceans
			A. Odontocetes (Toothed Whales)
			B. Mysticetes (Baleen Whales)
		V. Other Marine Mammals
		References
	Diving Physiology
		I. Introduction
		II. Adaptations to Hypoxia
			A. Oxygen Stores and Their Distribution
			B. Cardiovascular Responses
			C. Metabolic Responses
			D. Anaerobic Metabolism
			E. Aerobic Diving Limit
		III. Adaptations to Pressure
		References
	Dolphins, Porpoises, and Monodontids, Evolution
	Dugong
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Dusky Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
E (281-345 pp.)
	Eared Seals
		I. Classification
		II. Morphology and Physiology
		III. Distribution and Habitat
		IV. Behavior and Ecology
		V. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Earless Seals
		I. Systematics
		II. Distribution
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Echolocation
		I. Sound Production Mechanism and Propagation in the Dolphin’s Head
		II. Sound Reception and Auditory Capabilities
		III. Sound Transmission and the Characteristics of Echolocation Signals
		IV. Target Discrimination Capabilities
		V. Echolocation Signals of Free-Swimming Dolphins
		VI. Conclusions
	Ecology
		I. Conceptualizing and Understanding Ecological Interactions and Processes
			A. The Nature of Species Interactions
			B. Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Forcing
			C. Direct Versus Indirect Effects
			D. Alternate Stable States
		II. Approaches to Understanding
		III. Case Studies
			A. Marine Otters
			B. Sirenians
			C. Pinnipeds
			D. Cetaceans
		IV. Density-Mediated Versus Trait-Mediated Effects
		V. Future Directions
	Elephant Seals
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Human Interactions
		References
	Embryology
		I. Skull Shape
		II. Feeding Apparatus
		III. Hair and Skin
		IV. Forelimbs
		V. Hind Limbs
		VI. Tail and Fluke
		VII. Gestation and Growth
		VIII. Uterus and Placenta
		IX. Fetal Position and Birth
		References
	Endangered Species and Populations
		I. Introduction
		II. Why Do Marine Mammal Populations Become Endangered or Fail to Recover?
		III. Recovery and Nonrecovery of Species and Populations: Lessons and Trends
		IV. Improving the Recovery of Species and Populations
		V. The Future of Endangered Species Recovery
	Endocrine Systems
		I. Introduction
		II. Neuroendocrine Perception of Environmental Changes
		III. Thyroid Hormones
		IV. Substrate Metabolism
		V. Adrenal Hormones and Stress
		VI. Osmoregulation
		VII. Diving
		VIII. Reproduction
		IX. Immune–Endocrine Interactions
		X. Endocrine Disruption
		XI. Conclusions
		References
	Energetics
		I. Introduction
		II. Energy Acquisition
		III. Energy Expenditure
			A. Maintenance Costs
			B. Locomotion and Foraging Costs
			C. Growth and Reproduction Costs
			D. Field Metabolic Rates
			E. Disturbance Costs
		References
	Entanglement of Whales in Fishing Gear
		References
	Epimeletic Behavior
	Ethics
		I. Marine Mammals and Humans: Obligations and Opportunities
		II. The Moral Status of Marine Mammals
			A. Who, Not What, Are Marine Mammals?
			B. From Resources to Respect: Recognition of Personhood and Rights
			C. Marine Mammals in Person and in Policy
		III. Where Marine Mammals and Humans Meet
			A. Direct Killing of Marine Mammals
			B. Entertainment and Captive Public Display
			C. Sociable Interactions in the Wild
			D. Ethical Research Paradigms
			IV. Emerging Ethics
		References
	Extinctions, Specific
		I. Steller’s Sea Cow
		II. West Indian Monk Seal
		III. Japanese Sea Lion
		IV. Baiji
		V. Prospects for the Future
		References
F (347-395 pp.)
	False Killer Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior
	Feeding Morphology
		I. Functional Morphology
		II. Cetacean Functional Feeding Morphology
			A. Odontocetes
			B. Mysticetes
		III. Sirenian Functional Feeding Morphology
		IV. Pinniped Functional Feeding Morphology
		V. Sea Otter and Polar Bear Functional Feeding Morphology
	Feeding Strategies and Tactics
		I. Introduction
		II. Finding Prey
			A. Habitat Use
			B. Migration
			C. Searching and Diving
			D. Prey Detection
		III. Capturing and Consuming Prey
			A. Stalking and Ambushing
			B. Prey Herding and Manipulation
			C. Prey Debilitation
			D. Tool Use
			E. Benthic Foraging
			F. Batch Feeding
			G. Ectoparasitism, Kleptoparasitism, Scavenging, and Cannibalism
			H. Herbivory
			I. Prey Preparation and Consumption
		IV. Group Foraging
			A. Cooperative Foraging, Food Sharing, and Cultivation
			B. Optimal Group Size
		V. Variation in Feeding Strategies and Tactics
			A. Trade-Offs
			B. Ontogenetic Variation
			C. Interindividual Variation
			D. Intraindividual Variation
	Filter Feeding
		I. Filter Feeding and the Marine Environment
		II. Diet, Filter-Feeding Structures, and Prey Capture
			A. Seals—Diet, Feeding Morphology, and Behavior
			B. Mysticetes—Diet and Feeding Morphology
			C. Mysticetes—Feeding Behavior
			D. Mysticetes—Feeding Ecology
		III. Summary
		References
	Fin Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Finless Porpoises
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Fisheries Interactions
		I. Introduction
		II. Biological Interactions
		III. Operational Interactions: Foraging Benefits for Mammals
			A. Commensal Interactions
			B. Kleptoparasitism or Depredation
			C. Mutualism
		IV. Operational Interactions: Welfare and Conservation Impacts on Marine Mammals
		V. Operational Interactions: Losses to Fisheries
		VI. Summary
		References
	Folklore and Legends
	Forelimb Anatomy
		I. Cetaceans
		II. Sirenians
		III. Marine Carnivores
			A. Pinnipeds
	Franciscana Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
			A. Fossil Record
			B. Geographic Variation
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Fraser’s Dolphin 
Lagenodelphis hosei
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
G (397-440 pp.)
	Gastrointestinal Tract
		I. Introduction
		II. Pinnipeds, Polar Bears, and Sea Otters
		III. Cetaceans
		IV. Sirenia
	Genetics and Genomics
		I. Sex and Age in an Era of Nonlethal Sampling
		II. Identification of Individuals and Their Close Relatives
		III. Estimating Current and Past Abundance
		IV. Population Genetic Structure and Units of Conservation
		V. The Recent Application of Genomics to the Study of Marine Mammals
		VI. Convergent Evolution Among Marine Mammal Lineages
		VII. A Final Note of Caution
		References
	Genetics, Forensics
		I. Introduction
		II. Molecular Taxonomy and Identification of Cetacean Species
		III. Web-Based Species Identification With www.DNA-surveillance
		IV. Taxonomic Uncertainties and Species Identification
		V. Monitoring of Whale Meat Markets
		VI Individual Identification and a Diagnostic “DNA Register”
		VII. Identification of Small Cetaceans and “Marine Bushmeat”
		VIII. Conclusion
		References
	Genetics, Management
		I. The “Conservation Unit”
			A. The Evolutionarily Significant Unit
			B. The Demographically Independent Population
		II. Molecular Markers
		III. Focusing on the Individual
			A. Illegal Traffic and Trade
			B. Other Uses of Individual-Oriented Genetic Information
			C. The Hidden Power of Molecular Genetics
	Geographic Variation
		I. The Nature of Geographic Variation
		II. Subspecies
		III. Cetaceans
		IV. Carnivores
		V. Sirenians
		References
	Gray Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
	Gray Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
			A. Western North Pacific Population (Critically Endangered)
			B. Eastern North Pacific Population
		III. Ecology
			A. Diet and Feeding
			B. Predators and Parasites
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
			A. Social Organization
			B. Sensory Perception
			C. Swimming, Breathing, and Diving
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Group Behavior
		I. Theory of Group-Living
			A. Benefits and Costs of Group-Living
			B. Female Social Behavior
		II. Social Behavior of Marine Mammals
			A. General Strategies
			B. Foraging
			C. Predation
			D. Resource Defense
		III. Conclusion
	Guadalupe, Juan Fernández, and Galapagos fur seals
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
			II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
H (441-501 pp.)
	Habitat Pressures
		I. Physical Damage
		II. Chemical Pollution
		III. Competition With Fisheries
		IV. Disturbance
		V. Climate Change
		References
	Hair and Fur
		I. Structure and Function
		II. Molt
		References
	Harbor Porpoise
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Harbor Seal
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Harp Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Health
		I. Individual Physical Examination
		II. Measures of Population Health
			Diagnostic Approach
			Important and Emerging Conditions in Marine Mammals
		III. Conclusion
		References
	Hearing
		I. Acoustics
		II. Hearing in Air
		III. Bone Conduction Hearing
		IV. Odontocete Cetaceans
		V. Mysticete Cetaceans
		VI. Sirenians
		VII. Pinnipeds
		VIII. Polar Bears and Sea Otters
		IX. Evolution of Cetacean Hearing
		References
	Hindlimb Anatomy
		I. Cetaceans
		II. Sirenians
		III. Pinnipeds
		IV. Polar Bears and Sea Otters
		References
	History of Marine Mammal Research
		References
	Hooded Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
	Hourglass Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
	Humpback Dolphins
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Humpback Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Hunting
		I. Hunting of Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises
		II. Pinnipeds
		III. Sirenians
		IV. Sea Otters and Polar Bears
		V. Market (Commercial) Versus Subsistence (Household-Use) Hunting
	Hybridism
		I. Introduction
		II. Evidence of Matings Between Marine Mammal Species
		III. Reported Hybridizations in Captivity
		IV. Reported Hybridizations in the Wild
		V. Evolutionary Implications of Hybridization
		References
I (503-529 pp.)
	Identification Methods
		I. Cetaceans
			A. Natural Markings
			B. Temporary Markings
			C. Scarring and Branding
			D. Attachment Tags
		II. Pinnipeds
			A. Natural Markings
			B. Temporary Markings
			C. Scarring and Branding
			D. Attachment Tags
		III. Sirenians
			A. Natural Markings
			B. Temporary Markings
			C. Scarring and Branding
			D. Attachment Tags
		References
	Indo-Pacific Beaked Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Intelligence
		I. Brain Size and Characteristics
		II. Learning
			A. Language Studies
			B. Inventive Dolphins
		III. Behavioral Complexity in Nature
			A. Carnivores and Sirenians
			B. Baleen Whales
			C. Toothed Whales
		IV. Conclusions
		References
	International Whaling Commission
		I. Historical Background
		II. Establishment of the International Whaling Commission
		III. The IWC Before 1972
		IV. A Period of Change: 1972 to the “Moratorium”
		V. The Commission Today
			A. Management Issues
	Inuit and Marine Mammals
		I. Introduction
		II. Precontact Whaling
		III. Mysticetes
			A. Bowhead Whale, agviq
			B. Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus), agvigluaq
			C. Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and Fin Whales (Balaenoptera physalus)
			D. Minke Whale (B. acutorostrata)
		IV. Odontocetes
			A. Beluga Whale (Delphinapterus leucas), qilalugaq
			B. Narwhal (Monodon monoceros), qilalugaq tuugaalik
		V. Pinnipeds and Polar Bears
			A. Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida), natchiq Bearded Seal, ugruk and Harp Seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus)
			B. Walrus, aiviq
			C. Polar Bear, nanuq
	Irrawaddy Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
			A. Vernacular Names
			B. Taxonomic Relationships
			C. External Appearance
			D. Skeletal Characteristics
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
			A. Threats
			B. Conservation
		References
K (531-543 pp.)
	Killer Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior
			A. Social Structure
			B. Foraging Behavior
			C. Vocalizations
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Krill and Other Plankton
		I. Introduction
		II. General Morphology and Life History of Krill
		III. Swarming
		IV. Recruitment Variability
		V. Foraging Tactics of Baleen Whales and Crabeater Seals
		VI. Marine Mammal Diets and Euphausiid Consumption by Ocean Basin
			A. North Pacific
			B. South Pacific
			C. North Atlantic
			D. Indian Ocean
			E. Southern Ocean
			F. Summary
		VII. Anthropogenic Effects
		References
L (545-554 pp.)
	Language Learning and Cognitive Skills
		I. Dolphin Cognitive Skills
		II. Dolphins and Language
			A. Natural Language?
			B. Early Attempts at Teaching Language to Dolphins
			C. Kewalo Basin Dolphin Studies of Language Comprehension
			D. Conclusions
		References
	Leopard Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Locomotion, Terrestrial
		I. Terrestrial Locomotion Evolution
		II. Carnivore Terrestrial Locomotion
		III. Pinniped Terrestrial Locomotion
		IV. Cetacean and Sirenian Terrestrial Locomotion
		References
M (555-626 pp.)
	Management
		I. Management Units
		II. Methods of Marine Mammal Management
			A. Traditions, Taboos, and Practices
			B. Harvest Bans
			C. Age/Sex Limitations on Harvests
			D. Seasonal Area Closures
			E. Restrictions on Methods and Fishing Gear
			F. Quota-Based Restrictions
			G. Market Monitoring and Trade Restrictions
			H. Treatment of Wild and Captive Animals
			I. Marine Sanctuaries
			J. Pinniped Control Programs
			K. Ecosystem Management
		III. Trends in Marine Mammal Management
	Manatees
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
			A. West Indian Manatee, T. manatus
			B. Amazonian Manatee, T. inunguis
			C. African Manatee, T. senegalensis
			III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Functional Morphology
		VI. Life History
		VII. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Marine Parks, Zoos, and Aquariums
		I. The History of Zoological Parks Worldwide
		II. Connecting People to Wildlife
		III. Care, Welfare, and Sustainability
		IV. Basic and Applied Research
		V. Future of Marine Parks, Zoos, and Aquariums
	Marine Protected Areas
		I. The Recent Growth and Development of Marine Protected Areas
		II. Criteria and Process for Selecting MPAs for Marine Mammals
		III. Designing MPAs for Marine Mammals
		IV. Ecosystem-Based Management
		V. The Legal Process for Setting up MPAs
		VI. Management Plans, Monitoring, and Evaluating Effectiveness
		VII. Networks of MPAs
		VIII. High Seas MPAs
		IX. Filling Gaps in the Protection of Marine Mammal Habitats
		References
	Mark-Recapture
		I. Introduction
		II. Capturing and Identifying Individuals
			A. Photo-identification
			B. Genetic Tagging
		III. Movement Patterns
		IV. Mark-Recapture Analysis to Estimate Survival Rates and Abundance
			A. Survival Rates
			B. Abundance
			C. Assumptions
		V. Birth/Fecundity Rates
		References
	Mass Mortalities
		I. Diagnosis
		II. Infectious Disease
		III. Biotoxins
		IV. Environmental Effects
		V. Anthropogenic Effects
	Mating Systems
		I. Introduction to Mating Systems
		II. Male Mating Strategies
		III. Female Mating Strategies
		IV. Taxonomic Descriptions
			A. Pinnipeds
			B. Cetaceans
			C. Sirenians, Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris) and Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus)
		V. Mating System Studies and the Future
		References
	Melon-Headed Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Mesoplodon Beaked Whales
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Migration and Movement
	Mimicry
		References
	Minke Whales 
Balaenoptera acutorostrata and B. bonaerensis
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Molecular Ecology
		I. Diversity Within Individuals
		II. Diversity Within Populations
		III. Population Genetics
		IV. Beyond Populations
		V. Summary
		References
	Monk Seals
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Musculature
		I. Overview of Muscle Microanatomy
		II. Axial Muscles
		III. Appendicular Muscles
		IV. Craniofacial and Craniocervical Muscles
	Museums and Collections
		References
N (627-648 pp.)
	Narwhal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Neoceti
	New Zealand Fur Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	New Zealand Sea Lion
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Noise
		A. Marine Mammal Hearing
		B. Effects of Noise on Marine Mammal Behavior
		C. Effects of Noise on Marine Mammal Communication
		D. Effects of Noise on Hearing and Other Systems
		References
	Northern Fur Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
O (649-671 pp.)
	Ocean Environments
		I. Surface Temperature, Salinity
		II. Surface Currents and Winds
		III. Vertical Structure
		IV. Productivity
		V. Ice
		VI. Temporal Variability
		VII. Effects on Life History and Function
		VIII. Effects on Feeding
		IX. Effects on Distribution and Migration
		X. Effects of Climate Change
	Odobenocetops
		I. Descriptive Anatomy
		II. Affinities
		III. Functionnal Anatomy and Habits
			A. Feeding Adaptations
	Omura’s Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Osmoregulation
		I. Water and Electrolyte Ingestion
		II. Water and Electrolyte Output
		III. Do Marine Mammals Drink Seawater?
		IV. Relative Reductions in Water Loss
		V. Water Balance During Reproduction
		VI. Evolutionary Implications
	Otters
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
P (673-792 pp.)
	Pacific White-sided Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Pantropical Spotted Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Parasites
		I. Parasite Diversity
			A. Cetaceans
			B. Sirenians
			C. Pinnipeds
			D. Sea Otter
			E. Polar Bear
		II. Patterns and Processes in Host–Parasite Associations
			A. General Hypothesis on the Origin of Associations
			B. Parasite Exchange in Ecological Scenarios
		III. Effects and Applications
			A. Parasitosis
			B. Public Health
			C. Natural Tags
		References
	Parental Behavior
		I. Feeding, Lactation, and Patterns of Association
		II. Protection and Predation
		III. Mother–Offspring Recognition
		IV. Maternal Influence on Offspring Behavioral Development
		V. Parity
		VI. Mother–Offspring Conflict and Weaning
		VII. Association Postweaning
		References
	Pathology
		I. Introduction
		II. Sources of Information
		III. Parasitism
		IV. Neoplasia
		V. Infectious Disease
		VI. Chronic Diseases of Undetermined Cause
		VII. Stress
		VIII. Conclusions
		References
	Peale’s Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Pilot Whales
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Pinniped Ecology
		I. Abundance
		II. Distribution
		III. Reproductive Ecology
			A. Mating Systems
			B. Lactation Strategies
		IV. Foraging
			A. Methods
			B. Diet
			C. Foraging and Diving Behavior
			D. Spatial and Temporal Scales of Foraging
		IV. Role of Pinnipeds in Aquatic Ecosystems
		V. Conclusions
		References
	Pinniped Evolution
		I. Pinniped Ancestry: Origin and Affinities
		II. Divergence of Major Lineages
		References
	Pinniped Life History
		I. Characteristics of Pinniped Life Histories
		II. Methods for Examining Life Histories
		III. Constraints on Life Histories
		IV. Costs Versus Benefits of Reproduction
		V. Age at First Reproduction
		VI. Reproductive Rates
		VII. Comparing Males and Females
		References
	Pinniped Physiology
		I. Introduction
		II. Fasting Physiology
			A. Lipid Utilization and Protein Sparing
			B. Glucose Metabolism
			C. Hormonal Regulation of Fuel Use
			D. Renal Physiology During Fasting
		III. Lactation Physiology
		IV. Oxidative Stress
		References
	Pinnipeds
		I. Systematics and Distribution
			A. Otariidae: Fur Seals and Sea Lions
			B. Odobenidae: Walruses
			C. Phocidae: Seals
		II. Anatomy and Physiology
		III. Behavior
		References
	Playful Behavior
		I. Motor Imitations
		II. Vocal Imitation
		III. Examples of Play
			A. The Mischievous Dusky Dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus)
			B. Creating a Bow Wave
			C. Balancing Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus)
			D. Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) Conspecific and Interspecific Play
			E. The Darker Side of Play
	Polar Bear
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Pollution
		I. Legacy and New Substances of Concern
		II. Factors to be Taken into Account in Assessing Pollution Impact
			A. Biological Factors Affecting Variability in Pollutant Levels
			B. Diet
			C. Age and Sex
			D. Nutritive Condition
			E. Body Size
			F. Body Composition
			G. Analysis and Sampling
		III. Impacts of Pollution on Marine Mammals
			A. Impaired Reproduction
			B. Disease
			C. Direct Mortality
			D. Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
		IV. Species Vulnerability
		V. Developments in Spatial and Temporal Trends of Pollutants
		VI. Marine Debris
		VII. A Fundamental Approach to Address Pollution Impact on Marine Mammals
		References
	Popular Culture and Literature
		I. Introduction
		II. Background: Shaping Cultural Perceptions Prior to the 1950s
		III. The 1950s: Out With the Old
		IV. The 1960s and 1970s: In With the New
		V. The 1980s and 1990s: Loving Marine Mammals Becomes an Industry
		VI. Marine Mammals in the 21st Century: The Urban Whale and Domestic Dolphin
		VII. International Perspectives
		VIII. Conclusion
	Population Dynamics
		I. Rates of Population Increase
			A. Population Growth of Long-Lived Animals
			B. Measuring Population Growth
			C. Taxonomic Differences
		II. Extrinsic Factors Affecting Population Size
			A. Environmental Variance
			B. Disease and Natural Toxins
			C. Competition
			D. Predation
		III. Density-Dependence
			A. Compensation
			B. Linear Versus Nonlinear Density-Dependence
			C. Density-Dependence and Management
			D. Allee Effect (Depensation)
		References
	Porpoises, Overview
		I. Origins
		II. Morphology
		III. Ecology and Behavior
		IV. Conservation
	Predation on Marine Mammals
		I. Introduction
		II. Predation on Sirenians
		III. Predation on Mustelids
		IV. Predation on Pinnipeds
			A. Polar Bears
			B. Pinnipeds
		V. Predation on Cetaceans
			A. Blackfish
			B. Sharks
			C. Polar Bears
			D. Killer Whales
			E. Humans
		References
	Predator–Prey Relationships
		I. Evolutionary Time Scales
		II. Ecological Time Scales
		III. Synthesis
	Prey Consumption
		I. Prey Contribution and Quality
		II. Daily Requirements
		III. From the Individual to the Population
		IV. Spatiotemporal considerations
		V. Future Considerations
		References
	Pygmy and Dwarf Sperm Whales
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Pygmy Killer Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior
		V. Life History
	Pygmy Right Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
R (793-840 pp)
	Remoras
		I. Remora Biology
		II. Marine Mammal Hosts
		III. Problems With Remora Identifications
		References
	Reproductive Anatomy
		I. Male Anatomy
		II. Female Anatomy
	Reproductive Behavior
		I. Introduction
		II. Pinnipeds
			A. Transition From Foraging to Breeding
			B. Parental Behavior
			C. Maternal Behavior
			D. Mating Behavior
				(i). Females
				(ii). Males
			E. Mating Habitats
			F. Social Structure
			G. The Transition to Foraging
		III. Cetaceans
			A. Transitioning From Nonbreeding to Breeding States
			B. Mysticetes
			C. Odontocetes
			D. Parental Behavior
			E. Maternal Behavior
			F. Paternal Behavior
			G. Mating Behavior
				(i). Female Mating Behavior
				(ii). Male Mating Behavior
		IV. Other Marine Mammal Species
			A. Sirenians
			B. Polar Bears
			C. Sea and Marine Otters
		V. Reproductive Behavior in Changing Environments
		References
	Reproductive Physiology
		I. Reproductive Physiology of Pinnipeds
			A. General Reproduction
			B. Female Reproduction
			C. Male Reproduction
		II. Reproductive Physiology of the Polar Bear
			A. General Reproduction
			B. Female Reproduction
			C. Male Reproduction
		III. Reproductive Physiology of Cetaceans
			A. General Reproduction
			B. Female Reproduction
			C. Male Reproduction
	Ribbon Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Right Whale Dolphins
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Right Whales
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Ringed Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Risso’s Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
			A. Conservation
		References
	River Dolphins
		I. Taxonomy and Distribution
		II. Behavior and Ecology
		III. Threats and Conservation Concerns
	River Dolphins, Evolution
		I. Platanistoidea
			A. Squalodontidae
			B. Prosqualodontidae
			C. Waipatiidae
			D. Allodelphinidae
			E. Squalodelphinidae
			F. Platanistidae
			II. Nonplatanistoid River Dolphins
		A. Lipotidae
			B. Inioidea
		III. Conclusions
	Ross Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Rough-Toothed Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
S (841-982 pp.)
	Scrimshaw
	Sei Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions with Humans
	Sensory Biology
		I. Chemical Senses
		II. Electrosense
		III. Magnetosense
		References
	Sexual Dimorphism
		I. Evolution of Sexual Dimorphism
		II. Taxonomic Distribution
			A. Baleen Whales
			B. Toothed Whales
			C. Pinnipeds
			D. Sirenians, Sea Otters, and Polar Bears
		IV. Sexual Dimorphism, Sexual Selection, and Marine-Mammal-Mating Systems
		References
	Shepherd’s Beaked Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
	Signature Whistles
	Sirenian Evolution
		I. Sirenian Origins
		II. Early History, Anatomy, and Mode of Life
		III. Dugongidae
	Sirenian Life History
		I. Life History
			A. Longevity
			B. Age at Sexual Maturity
			C. Parental Care
			D. Growth and Development
			E. Fecundity
	Skeleton
		I. Axial Skeleton
			A. Vertebral Structures
			B. Vertebral Column
			C. Cervical Region
			D. Thoracic Region
			E. Sternum
			F. Lumbar Region
			G. Sacral Region
			H. Caudal Region
			I. Chevron Bones
		II. Appendicular Skeleton
			A. Pectoral Limb Complex
			B. Pelvic Limb Complex
			C. Sexual Dimorphism
	Skull
		I. Feeding
		II. Bones and Bony Features
		III. Joints and Foramina
		IV. Cranial and Nasal Cavities
		V. Telescoping in Cetaceans
		References
	Sociobiology
		I. Sociobiological Inquiry
		II. Grouping
			A. Cetaceans
			B. Pinnipeds
			C. Sirenians, Sea Otters, Polar Bears
		III. Parental Investment
			A. Cetaceans
			B. Pinnipeds
			C. Sirenians, Sea Otters, Polar Bears
		IV. Mating Systems
			A. Cetaceans
			B. Pinnipeds
			C. Sirenians, Sea Otters, Polar Bears
	Song
		I. Characteristics
			A. First Descriptions
			B. Song Structure
			C. Song Progression
			D. Song Characteristics and Population Definition
		II. Singing Behavior
			A. Seasonality
			B. A Male Communication
			C. Interactions of Singers
		III. Function
		IV. Songs of Other Species
	Sound
		I. Fundamentals of Sound
		II. Sound Production Mechanisms
			A. Terrestrial Mammals
			B. Mysticetes
			C. Odontocetes
			D. Sirenians, Pinnipeds, and Polar Bears
		III. Characteristics of Vocalizations by Groups and Selected Species
			A. Pinniped Sounds
				Phocids
				Otariids
				Odobenids
			B. Mysticete Sounds
			C. Odontocete Sounds
				Click Sounds
				Pulsed Sounds
				Whistles
				Signature Whistles
			D. Sounds of Sirenians and Other Groups
		IV. Conclusions
		References
	Sound Paths, Cetaceans
		I. Introduction
		II. Odontocetes
		III. Mysticetes
		References
	South American Fur Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	South American Sea Lion
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Species and Subspecies
		I. What Are Species and Subspecies?
		II. The Process of Speciation
		III. Methods for Delineating Species and Subspecies
		IV. Species and Subspecies in the Future
		References
	Spectacled Porpoise
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Sperm and Beaked Whales, Evolution
		I. Sperm Whales, Fossil Record, and Phylogeny
		II. Beaked Whales, Fossil Record, and Phylogeny
		III. Paleoecology and Evolutionary Trends
		References
	Sperm Whale
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
			A. Vocalizations
			B. Movement
			C. Social Structure
			D. Behavioral Modes
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Spinner Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Spotted Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Movements
		III. Ecology
			A. Habitat
			B. Diet and Feeding
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
	Steller Sea Lion
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions with Humans
	Steller’s Sea Cow
Hydrodamalis gigas
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution
		III. Ecology
		IV. Life History
		V. Interactions With Humans
	Stock Assessment
		I. Methods
		II. Stock Assessments by the International Whaling Commission
		III. US MMPA Stock Assessments
		IV. Assessment of Extinction Risk
		V. Other Marine Mammal Stock Assessments
		VI. Stock Identification
		VII. Recent and Future Developments in Marine Mammal Stock Assessments
		References
	Stock Identity
		I. Importance of Stock Identity
		II. Definition of Stock
		III. Stock Identification Approaches
		IV. Analytical Techniques
		V. Study Design and Sampling
		VI. Other Complications
		References
	Strandings
		I. Introduction
		II. Types of Stranding Events
			A. Single Strandings
			B. Mass Strandings
			C. Mass Mortalities or Unusual Mortality Events (UMEs)
			D. Out of Habitat Situations
		III. Stranding Response
			A. The Value of Stranding Response
			B. Stranding Response Objectives
			C. Basics of Stranding Response
			D. Human Interaction Evaluations
			E. Live Animal Response
			F. Dead Animal Response
			G. Large Whale Strandings
		References
	Streamlining
		I. Drag
		II. Body Shape
		III. Drag Reduction Mechanisms
	Striped Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Subantarctic Fur Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Surveys
		I. Vessel Surveys
		II. Aircraft Surveys
		III. Land-Based Surveys
		IV. Advanced Sampling Technologies
		References
	Sustainability
		I. Introduction
		II. Management Questions, Empirical Answers
		III. Accounting for Complexity
		References
	Susu and Bhulan
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
			A. Vernacular Names
			B. External Appearance
			C. Taxonomic Relationships
			D. Skeletal and Internal Morphology
			E. Internal Anatomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
			A. Threats
			B. Conservation
	Swimming
		I. Hydrodynamics and Body Streamlining
		II. Kinematics
		III. Energetics
		IV. Swimming Speeds and Behavior
		V. Field Measurements and the Special Case of Swimming at Depth
	Systematics
		I. Basic Tenets of Phylogenetic Systematics
		II. Phylogeny Reconstruction
		III. Phylogenetic Classification
		IV. Uses of a Phylogeny
		References
T (983-1030 pp.)
	Territorial Behavior
		I. Territoriality in Marine Mammals
		II. Territoriality, Mating Strategies, and Mate Selection
		III. Obtaining, Defending, and Advertising Territories
		IV. Costs of Territoriality
		V. Development of Territorial Behavior
		VI. Territorial Functions
		VII. Spatial Aspects of Territoriality
		VIII. Temporal Aspects of Territoriality
	Thermoregulation
		I. Physics of Heat
		II. What Is “Thermoregulation”?
		III. Thermoregulation in Marine Mammals
			A. Heat Conservation and Generation
			B. Blubber
			C. Fur
			D. Vascular Adaptations
			E. Behavioral Thermoregulation
		IV. Current Issues and New Research
			A. Climate Change
			B. New Research Tools
		IV. Summary
	Thorax and Abdomen, Anatomy
		I. Mammalian Postcranial Landmarks
			A. The Diaphragm
			B. Regions and Structures Cranial to the Diaphragm
			C. Structures Caudal to the Diaphragm
		II. Overview
	Tool Use
		I. Explaining the Rarity
		II. Examples of Marine Mammal Tool Use
		III. Conclusion
		References
	Toothed Whales (Odontoceti)
		I. Diagnostic Characters and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Range
		III. External Appearance
		IV. Diet and Feeding Strategies
		V. Sound Production and Reception
		VI. Social Organization and Culture
		VII. Mating System, Reproduction, and Life History
		VIII. Human Interaction and Conservation Status
	Tourism
		I. The Birth of Whale Watching
		II. Science and Education as Part of Marine Mammal Tourism
		III. Growth of Commercial Marine Mammal Tourism
		IV. Growing Pains and the Institution of Guidelines and Regulations
		V. Tourism Impacts on Marine Mammals and Marine Mammal Populations?
		VI. Tourism and Conservation: Making Marine Mammal Tourism Sustainable
		References
	Training
		I. Introduction
		II. Animal Learning and Behavior
			A. Observational Learning
			B. Classical Conditioning
			C. Operant Conditioning
		III. An Emphasis on Positive Reinforcement
		IV. Training, In General
			A. Training Pinnipeds
			B. Evolving Applications and Advanced Concepts
			C. Calf Survival and Reproduction
			D. Reintroduction Programs
		V. Animal Acclimation
		VI. Enrichment and Variety
		VII. Research in Managed Care
		VIII. Behavior Medicine
		IX. Animal Welfare
		X. Conclusion
		References
	Tucuxi and Guiana Dolphins
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
	Tuna-Dolphin Issue
		I. The Tuna-Dolphin Association
		II. Purse-Seining for Tuna
		III. Actions to Reduce the Dolphin Bycatch
		IV. Status of the Dolphin Populations
		References
V (1031-1044 pp.)
	Vaquita
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Vision
		I. Visual Abilities of Marine Mammals
			A. Cetaceans
			B. Pinnipeds
			C. Other Marine Mammals
		II. Eye Anatomy and Optics
			A. Cetaceans
			B. Pinnipeds
			C. Other Marine Mammals
		III. Eye Movements
		IV. The Retina and Optic Nerve
			A. Features of the Retina in Cetaceans
			B. Features of the Retina in Pinnipeds
			C. Optic Nerve Structure in Cetaceans
			D. Optic Nerve Structure in Pinnipeds
			E. The Retina of Other Marine Mammals
		V. Retinal Topography and Visual Field Organization
			A. Retinal Topography in Cetaceans
			B. Retinal Topography in Pinnipeds
			C. Retinal Topography in Other Marine Mammals
		VI. Conclusions
		References
W (1045-1079 pp.)
	Walrus
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Weddell Seal
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
	Whale Lice
		I. Origin and Diversification of Whale Lice
		II. Life History
		III. Whales as Mobile Islands
	Whaling, Aboriginal and Western Traditional
		I. Humans Meet Whales
		II. Early Icelandic Whaling
		III. Basque Whaling
		IV. Aboriginal Whaling
		V. Western Traditional Whaling
			A. Bowhead (Balaena mysticetus) Whaling
			B. The Beginning of Sperm Whaling
			C. Whaleships and Whaleboats
			D. Killing and Processing the Whale
		References
	Whaling, Illegal and Pirate
		I. Illegal Whaling
			A. Southern Hemisphere
			B. North Pacific
		II. Illegal Whaling by Other Countries
		III. Pirate Whaling
		References
	Whaling, Japanese
		I. Subsistence Whaling
		II. Traditional Commercial Whaling
		III. Modern Coastal Whaling
		IV. Pelagic Whaling in the Antarctic
			A. Before World War II
			B. Postwar Operations
		V. Pelagic Whaling in the North Pacific
			A. Before World War II
			B. Postwar, off the Bonin Islands
			C. Northern North Pacific
		VI. Whaling Under Foreign Jurisdiction
		VII. Small-Type Whaling
		VIII. Dolphin and Porpoise Fisheries
		IX. Trap Net Fishery
		X. Scientific Whaling
	Whaling, Modern
		I. The Emergence of Modern Whaling
		II. Advent of the International Whaling Commission
		III. Illegal Whaling
		IV. The Decline of Commercial Whaling
		V. Impact of Whaling on the Stocks of Whales
		VI. An Uncertain Future and the Rise of Scientific Whaling
	Whiskers
		I. Pinniped whiskers
			A. General
			B. Follicle-Sinus-Complex
			C. Active Touch
			D. Hydrodynamics
			E. Other Functions
		II. Whiskers of Other Marine Mammals
		References
	White-beaked Dolphin
		I. Characteristics and Taxonomy
			A. Taxonomy
			B. Description
		II. Distribution and Abundance
		III. Ecology
		IV. Behavior and Physiology
		V. Life History
		VI. Interactions With Humans
		References
Biographies
Glossary
Index
Inside Back Cover
Back Cover