Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition

Adipose Tissue: Structure, Function and MetabolismAdipose Tissue: Structure, Function and MetabolismAdipose Tissue:.........Page 1
Development......Page 2
Structure......Page 5
Distribution......Page 7
Function......Page 8
Regulation of Metabolism......Page 10
Further Reading......Page 13
  Obesity......Page 14
  Eating Disorders......Page 15
  Iron......Page 21
Further Reading......Page 22
  Growth......Page 23
  Dietary Recommendations......Page 24
  Energy, Protein, and Salt......Page 25
  Micronutrients......Page 29
  Impact of Lifestyle on Nutrition......Page 30
  Socioeconomic Status......Page 31
Further Reading......Page 32
  Introduction......Page 33
  Cellular Senescence......Page 34
  Error Catastrophe......Page 35
  Modification of the Aging Process......Page 36
  Molecular Biological Interventions and the Aging Process......Page 38
Further Reading......Page 39
Physical Properties of Ethanol......Page 40
Absorption and Distribution of Alcohol......Page 41
Alcohol Dehydrogenase Isoenzymes......Page 42
Acetaldehyde Metabolism......Page 43
Effects of Food on Blood Ethanol Concentration......Page 44
Effects of Alcohol on the Central Nervous System......Page 45
Alcohol and Nutrition......Page 46
Effects of Alcohol on Liver Function......Page 47
Effects of Acetate......Page 48
Further Reading......Page 49
Effects of Alcohol Consumption on Dietary Intake......Page 50
The Risks of Excessive Alcohol Consumption......Page 51
Neurological Effects......Page 52
Body Weight and Energy Balance......Page 53
Folate Deficiency......Page 54
Iron Deficiency......Page 55
Further Reading......Page 56
  Nonfood Uses......Page 57
  Aluminum in Beverages and Foods......Page 58
  Aluminum in Foods from Processing, Packaging, and Storage......Page 59
  Biokinetics of Aluminum in Blood......Page 60
  Toxicity of Systemic Aluminum......Page 61
  Evidence for a Role in AD......Page 62
Further Reading......Page 63
Small Neutral Amino Acids - Glycine and Alanine......Page 64
Sulfur Containing Amino Acids - Cysteine and Methionine......Page 67
Post-Translational Modification......Page 68
Nonprotein Amino Acids......Page 69
Classification......Page 70
Further Reading......Page 71
Glutamic Acid, Glutamine, Proline, and Arginine......Page 72
Cysteine......Page 73
Glutamic Acid, Glutamine, Proline, and Arginine......Page 74
Phenylalanine and Tyrosine......Page 75
Urea Cycle......Page 76
Amino Acid Pools......Page 77
Further Reading......Page 78
Amino Acid Flux, Concentration, and Function......Page 79
Arginine, Citrulline, Ornithine, and Proline......Page 80
Supplementation......Page 82
Glutamine, Glutamic acid, and Ornithine-alpha-Ketoglutarate......Page 83
Supplementation......Page 84
Lysine......Page 85
Supplementation......Page 86
Further Reading......Page 87
Cardiovascular Disease......Page 88
Cancer......Page 89
beta-Carotene......Page 92
Vitamin C......Page 94
Selenium......Page 95
Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease COPD......Page 96
Possible Explanations for the Disagreement between the Findings of Observational Studies and Clinical Trials......Page 97
Further Reading......Page 98
  Appetite Expression......Page 100
  Interrelated Levels of the System......Page 101
  Central Neural Processes: Structure of the Appetite System......Page 102
  Episodic Signals: Satiety......Page 103
  Central Hunger Signals......Page 104
  Integration of Episodic and Tonic Signals Within the CNS......Page 105
Further Reading......Page 107
Learned Appetites, Satieties, and Feeding Behavior......Page 108
Measuring Hunger......Page 109
Measuring Feeding Behavior......Page 110
Sensory Stimuli and Body Weight......Page 111
Meal Patterns, Appetite, and Energy Balance......Page 112
Cognitive and Social Cues......Page 113
Further Reading......Page 114
  Clinical Features......Page 116
  Supplementation with Dietary Fatty Acids......Page 117
  Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation......Page 118
  Conclusions......Page 119
Further Reading......Page 120
Relevant Websites......Page 121
  Metabolism and Excretion......Page 122
  Copper-Containing Hydroxylases......Page 123
  Inhibition of Nitrosamine Formation......Page 124
  Assessment of Vitamin C Status......Page 125
  Requirements Estimated from Maintenance of the Body Pool of Ascorbate......Page 126
  Dietary Sources and High Intakes......Page 127
Further Reading......Page 128
Scurvy: The History and Discovery of Vitamin C......Page 129
Degradation, Turnover, and Factors that Induce Increased Requirements for Vitamin C......Page 130
Well-Established Metabolic Functions of Vitamin C that are Impaired by Deficiency......Page 131
Measurement of Vitamin C Status; Biochemical Tests for Adequacy and Deficiency......Page 132
Occurrence of Low Intakes and Poor Biochemical Status in Present-Day Societies......Page 133
Further Reading......Page 134
  Definition of Asthma......Page 135
  Development of Asthma: The Role of Breastfeeding......Page 136
  Management of Asthma: Nutritional Influences and Genetics......Page 137
  Obesity and Asthma......Page 138
  Vitamins......Page 139
  Conclusion......Page 140
Relevant Websites......Page 141
Behavior: Effects of Diet on BehaviorBehavior: Effects of Diet on BehaviorBehavior: Effects of Diet on Behavior......Page 142
Effects of Meals......Page 143
Snacks......Page 144
Carbohydrate Versus Protein......Page 145
Effects of Dietary Fat......Page 146
Sugars and Opioids......Page 147
Glucose, Mood, and Mental Function......Page 148
Hyperactivity and Antisocial Behavior......Page 149
Cholesterol......Page 150
Essential Fatty Acids......Page 151
Food Deprivation......Page 152
Further Reading......Page 153
  Introduction......Page 155
  Tea......Page 156
  Animal Milk......Page 158
  Soft Drinks......Page 159
Further Reading......Page 160
  Nonheme Iron Bioavailability......Page 162
  Bioavailability as an Important Component in the Development of Food-Based Strategies to Combat Iron Deficiency: Food.........Page 164
  Carotenoids......Page 165
  Bioavailability of Carotenoids......Page 166
  Conversion Factors......Page 167
Relevant Websites......Page 168
Definition and Research Focus......Page 169
Conventional Breeding......Page 170
Agronomic Methods......Page 171
Minerals......Page 172
Efficacy......Page 173
Nutritional Impact......Page 174
Relevant Websites......Page 175
  Intestinal Absorption......Page 176
  Metabolism and Urinary Excretion of Biotin and Metabolites......Page 177
  Metabolic Functions......Page 179
  Potential Role for Biotin in Gene Expression......Page 181
Further Reading......Page 183
  DXA......Page 185
  Anthropometry......Page 186
  Models in Body Composition......Page 187
  Body Composition Applications During Growth......Page 188
  Body Composition Applications During Aging......Page 189
  Example 1......Page 190
  Conclusion......Page 191
Further Reading......Page 193
  Calcium......Page 194
  Vitamin D and Calcium Supplementation Studies on Bone......Page 195
  Observational and Intervention Studies......Page 196
  Isoflavones and Bone Health......Page 197
  Importance of Exercise to Bone......Page 198
References......Page 199
  Design of the Nervous System......Page 201
  Amino Acids and Protein......Page 202
  Water-Soluble Vitamins......Page 204
  Fat-Soluble Vitamins......Page 205
  Minerals......Page 206
Further Reading......Page 207
Breast Milk Composition and Volume......Page 208
Risks of not Breast Feeding......Page 210
Promotion of Breast Feeding......Page 211
Global Breast Feeding Practices......Page 212
Further Reading......Page 213
  Adults......Page 216
  Children......Page 217
  Children......Page 218
  Route of Feeding......Page 220
Further Reading......Page 221
CaffeineCaffeineCaffeine......Page 222
  Mechanisms of Action......Page 223
  Caffeine and Exercise......Page 224
  Caffeine Withdrawal......Page 225
  Caffeine Tolerance......Page 226
  Caffeine Dependence......Page 227
Further Reading......Page 228
  Functions......Page 229
  Mechanisms......Page 230
  Bioavailability......Page 231
  Hormonal Control......Page 232
  Influence of Life Stages......Page 233
  Health Consequences of Calcium Excess......Page 234
Further Reading......Page 235
Descriptive Studies......Page 236
Time Trends Within Countries......Page 237
Case-Control Studies......Page 238
Resolved and Unresolved Issues......Page 239
Further Reading......Page 241
  Disease Process......Page 243
  Epidemiology......Page 244
  Dietary Factors......Page 245
Further Reading......Page 246
Lung Cancer Histopathology......Page 248
Dietary Hypotheses and Mechanisms......Page 249
Phytochemicals......Page 250
Beverages......Page 251
See also......Page 252
Further Reading......Page 253
Anorexia......Page 254
Gastrointestinal Fistulas......Page 255
Weight Loss......Page 256
Further Reading......Page 257
Inorganic Chemical Carcinogens......Page 259
Organic Chemicals in Higher Plants......Page 260
Mechanisms of Carcinogenicity......Page 261
Animal Bioassays......Page 262
Short-term Predictive Tests......Page 263
Monitoring and Control of Hazards......Page 264
Further Reading......Page 265
Monosaccharides......Page 266
Oligosaccharides......Page 267
Sugar Alcohols......Page 268
Dietary Fiber......Page 269
Reactions in Alkaline Solutions......Page 270
Relevant Websites......Page 271
Glucose......Page 273
Fructose and Galactose......Page 274
Glucagon......Page 275
Allosteric Enzyme Regulation......Page 276
Glucose and Galactose Malabsorption......Page 277
Relevant Websites......Page 278
Sugars......Page 279
Health Effects of Carbohydrates......Page 280
Carbohydrates and Dental Caries......Page 281
Requirements and Recommendations......Page 282
Relevant Websites......Page 283
Chemical Properties......Page 284
Physical Properties......Page 285
Cleavage to Vitamin A......Page 286
Radical Reactions......Page 287
Digestion......Page 288
Absorption......Page 289
Mechanisms Affecting Human Health......Page 291
Further Reading......Page 292
Introduction......Page 293
Hydrocarbon Carotenoid: beta-Carotene......Page 295
Hydrocarbon Carotenoid: Lycopene......Page 296
Xanthophylls: Lutein and Zeaxanthin......Page 297
Further Reading......Page 298
  Pathogenesis......Page 299
  Triggers for Lack of Tolerance to Gliadin......Page 300
  Epidemiology of Celiac Disease......Page 301
  Clinical Presentation......Page 302
  Serological Screening Tests......Page 303
  The Gluten-Free Diet......Page 304
  Nonresponsive Celiac Disease......Page 305
Further Reading......Page 307
Grain Characteristics......Page 308
Maize......Page 309
Millets......Page 310
Carbohydrates......Page 311
Fatty Acid Composition......Page 312
Micronutrient Content......Page 313
Effects of Processing......Page 314
See also......Page 316
Further Reading......Page 317
Pyramidal Spastic Cerebral Palsy......Page 318
Growth......Page 319
Bone Mineral Density......Page 321
Oral Motor Evaluation......Page 322
Overweight......Page 323
Alternative Feeding Routes......Page 324
Coordinated Services......Page 325
Further Reading......Page 326
Child Development in the Preschool Years......Page 327
Dietary Recommendations for Young Children......Page 328
Obesity and Overweight in Preschool Children......Page 329
Rickets and Vitamin D Deficiency......Page 330
See also......Page 331
Further Reading......Page 332
  Magnesium......Page 337
  Iron......Page 338
  Selenium......Page 339
  Riboflavin Vitamin B2......Page 340
Further Reading......Page 341
Chylomicrons......Page 342
Dietary Cholesterol......Page 343
Trans-Monounsaturated Fatty Acids......Page 344
Obesity......Page 345
LDL Receptors......Page 346
Further Reading......Page 347
Cholesterol absorption......Page 348
Tissue Cholesterol Synthesis......Page 349
Fecal Excretion......Page 350
Major Dietary Sources......Page 351
Further Reading......Page 352
  Transport......Page 353
  Dietary Requirements and Food Sources......Page 354
  Liver Damage......Page 356
  Roles in the Epigenetic Regulation of Gene Expression......Page 357
Further Reading......Page 358
Essentiality and Metabolic Functions of Chromium......Page 359
Recent Advances......Page 360
Chromium and Stress......Page 361
Dietary Sources......Page 362
Further Reading......Page 363
  Introduction......Page 364
  Physiology......Page 365
  Causes, Mechanisms, and Effects of Cobalamin Deficiency......Page 367
  Diagnosis of Cobalamin Deficiency......Page 368
Further Reading......Page 369
History......Page 370
Metal-activated Versus Metalloenzymes......Page 371
Iron......Page 372
Reactivity......Page 373
Zinc......Page 374
Manganese......Page 375
Reactivity......Page 376
Boron......Page 377
Further reading......Page 378
Thiamine Vitamin B1......Page 379
Riboflavin Vitamin B2......Page 380
Niacin Nicotinic Acid, Nicotinamide......Page 381
Reactivity......Page 382
Folic Acid......Page 383
Reactivity......Page 384
Cobalamin Vitamin B12......Page 385
Vitamin K......Page 386
CoQ Ubiquinone......Page 387
Other......Page 388
See also......Page 389
Further Reading......Page 390
  Etiology......Page 402
Further Reading......Page 409
  Dietary Sources and Reference Values......Page 410
  Copper Absorption......Page 412
  Copper Distribution......Page 413
  Inborn Errors of Metabolism......Page 414
  Copper Deficiency......Page 415
Further Reading......Page 416
  Introduction......Page 417
  Determinants of Serum Cholesterol - Cholesterol and Cholesterolemia......Page 419
Further Reading......Page 421
  Antioxidants......Page 424
  Fish......Page 425
  Soy......Page 426
Further Reading......Page 427
  Specific Dietary Considerations......Page 432
  Vitamin Status in CF......Page 433
  The Oxidant/Antioxidant Imbalance in CF Patients......Page 434
Further Reading......Page 435
Metabolism and Metabolic Functions......Page 436
Role in Disease and Disease Processes......Page 437
Influence of Genetic Factors on Inflammatory Processes......Page 438
Influence of Fats on Cytokine Production and Effects......Page 439
Modulation of Cytokine Biology by Amino Acid and Protein Intake......Page 440
Conclusions......Page 441
Further Reading......Page 442
  Physiological Functions of Water......Page 443
  Development of Dehydration......Page 444
  Thirst......Page 445
  Heat Exhaustion......Page 446
  Treating Different Types of Dehydration......Page 449
  Prevention of Dehydration......Page 450
Further Reading......Page 451
Etiology of Caries......Page 452
Susceptible Sites......Page 453
Fluoride......Page 454
A Practical Approach to the Prevention of Caries......Page 455
National Trends in Caries Prevalence......Page 456
Fluoride Toothpaste......Page 457
Further Reading......Page 458
Further Reading......Page 473
  Etiology......Page 474
  Environmental Factors......Page 475
  Etiology......Page 476
  Genetics......Page 477
  MODY......Page 478
Further Reading......Page 479
  Diagnostic Criteria for Diabetes in Pregnant Women......Page 482
  Early Diagnosis of Autoimmune Diabetes......Page 483
  Other Abnormalities of Glucose Tolerance......Page 484
  Pathophysiology of Uncontrolled Diabetes......Page 486
Further Reading......Page 488
  Pathophysiology of Diarrhea......Page 489
  Prevention and Control......Page 490
Further Reading......Page 491
  Types of Guidelines......Page 492
  The Development of FBDG......Page 494
Further Reading......Page 496
Food balance sheets......Page 497
List Recall Methods......Page 499
Weighed Food Record Inventory and Estimated Food Record......Page 500
Reproducibility of Dietary Methods......Page 501
Data Entry and Nutrient Calculation Systems......Page 502
Social Desirability Bias......Page 503
Further Reading......Page 504
Relevant Websites......Page 505
Research Questions and Data Needs......Page 506
Individual Level......Page 507
Data Analysis and Limitations......Page 509
Further Reading......Page 510
Down’s Syndrome: Nutritional AspectsDown’s Syndrome: Nutritional AspectsDown’s Syndrome: Nutritional Aspects......Page 511
  Minerals......Page 512
  Dietary Guidelines......Page 513
  Obesity......Page 514
  Ageing......Page 515
Relevant Websites......Page 516
  Introduction......Page 517
  Alterations in Drug Transport......Page 518
  Host-related Functional Interactions......Page 524
Further Reading......Page 525
Introduction......Page 526
Evidence from Human Studies......Page 527
Maternal Calorie Restriction......Page 528
Maternal Glucocorticoid Exposure......Page 529
Epigenetic Mechanisms......Page 530
Further Reading......Page 531
  Long-Term Effects of Infant Feeding......Page 533
  Growth and Body Composition......Page 534
  Postnatal Growth and Later Risk of Disease......Page 535
  Adiposity and Obesity......Page 536
  Blood Pressure and Coronary Heart Disease......Page 537
Further Reading......Page 538
  Laboratory Investigations......Page 542
  Growth Hormone......Page 543
  See also......Page 545
Further Reading......Page 546
Etiology......Page 547
Groups at Risk......Page 548
Nutritional Findings......Page 549
Dietary Management......Page 550
Further Reading......Page 551
Relevant Website......Page 552
Assessment of Binge Eating......Page 553
Psychosocial Treatments......Page 555
Behavioral Weight Control......Page 556
Available Resources......Page 557
Relevant Websites......Page 558
Egg Types......Page 559
Egg Vitamins......Page 560
Egg Choline......Page 561
Egg Cholesterol......Page 562
Egg Food Safety......Page 563
Summary......Page 564
Relevant Websites......Page 565
Buffers......Page 566
Regulation......Page 567
Kidneys......Page 568
Metabolic Acidosis......Page 569
Excess Bicarbonate Loss......Page 570
Respiratory Acidosis......Page 571
Further Reading......Page 572
  Energy Adaptation: Beyond Mass Action......Page 573
  Spontaneous Physical Activity......Page 574
  Interactions between Resting and Nonresting Energy Expenditure......Page 575
  A Compartmental Model......Page 576
  Biological Significance......Page 577
  Energy Adaptation During a Longitudinal Human Study of Weight Fluctuations......Page 578
  See also......Page 579
Further Reading......Page 580
  Gross and Metabolizable Energy......Page 581
  Total Energy Expenditure and its Components......Page 582
  Basal Metabolic Rate or Resting Metabolic Rate......Page 583
  Thermic Effect of Food or Postprandial Thermogenesis, Nonshivering Thermogenesis......Page 584
  Energy Imbalance and Body Weight......Page 585
  Timescale of Energy Balance......Page 586
  Overfeeding Studies......Page 587
  Dynamics of Energy Balance with Overfeeding and Underfeeding Figure 10......Page 588
  Summary......Page 589
Further Reading......Page 590
  An Assessment of Food Needs by Estimating or Measuring Energy Use......Page 591
  Factors Affecting Metabolic Rate......Page 592
  Physical Activity......Page 594
  Nonexercise Activity Thermogenesis NEAT......Page 595
  Extra Energy Costs of Growth, Pregnancy and Lactation......Page 596
Further Reading......Page 597
  Glycolysis......Page 598
  Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle also known as the TCA Cycle, Citric Acid Cycle, or Kreb’s Cycle......Page 599
  The Electron Transfer Chain Oxidative Phosphorylation......Page 601
  Synthesis of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerides......Page 603
  Glycogen Metabolism......Page 604
Further Reading......Page 606
  Introduction......Page 607
  Whole Body Indirect Calorimetry......Page 608
  Metabolic Carts......Page 609
  Douglas Bag/Tissot Tank......Page 610
  Telemetry Systems......Page 611
Further Reading......Page 612
Energy Expenditure: Doubly Labeled WaterEnergy Expenditure: Doubly Labeled WaterEnergy Expenditure: Doubly Labeled Water......Page 614
Instrumentation......Page 616
Uses for the Doubly Labeled Water Method......Page 617
Relevant Website......Page 619
  Energy Expenditure During and After Exercise......Page 620
  Physiological Adaptations to Exercise Training......Page 621
  Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease......Page 622
  Cancer Prevention......Page 624
Further Reading......Page 625
Fatty Acids......Page 626
Triacylglycerol Triglyceride......Page 628
Cholesterol......Page 629
Fatty Acid Profile of Common Dietary Fats......Page 630
Quantity of Dietary Fat......Page 631
Dietary Guidance......Page 632
Further Reading......Page 633
Introduction......Page 634
Eicosanoid Metabolism and Biological Effects of Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids......Page 635
Genetic Variants, FADS1 and FADS2 in Estimating Nutritional Requirements of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids......Page 636
Genetic Variants of the FADS1 and FADS2 Gene Cluster Influence Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids Composition in Both Plasma.........Page 637
Genetic Variants in FADS1 and FADS2 and CHD Risk......Page 638
Genetic Variants of Cyclooxygenase-2 COX-2 and the Protective Effect of Long Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Cancer of the.........Page 639
Summary and Conclusions......Page 640
Further Reading......Page 641
Fatty Acids: Health Effects of Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty AcidsFatty Acids: Health Effects of Omega-6 Polyunsaturated.........Page 642
Structure, Function, and Nutritional Requirements......Page 643
Fatty Acid Intake and Eicosanoids......Page 644
Inflammation......Page 645
Blood Pressure......Page 646
Further Reading......Page 647
Total Saturated Fat Content of Diets......Page 648
Effects of Specific Saturated Fatty Acids......Page 649
Coagulation and Fibrinolysis......Page 650
Fibrinolysis......Page 651
Further Reading......Page 652
  Health Effects......Page 653
  Epidemiological Studies......Page 654
  Dietary Recommendations and Regulations......Page 655
  Disclaimer......Page 656
Further Reading......Page 657
Fatty Acid Activation......Page 658
Mitochondrial Fatty Acid beta-Oxidation......Page 659
Peroxisomal Fatty Acid beta-Oxidation......Page 661
Fatty Acid alpha-Oxidation and omega-Oxidation......Page 662
Fatty Acid de novo Synthesis......Page 663
Fatty Acids as Components of Complex Lipids......Page 665
Vitamins and Fatty Acid Metabolism......Page 667
Further Reading......Page 668
  Frisch and the Minimum Fatness Hypothesis......Page 669
  Energy Status and Fecundity......Page 670
  Energy Balance and Fecundity......Page 671
  Energy Flux and Fecundity......Page 672
  Energetics and Lactation......Page 673
  Central Regulatory Pathways......Page 674
  Peripheral Regulatory Pathways......Page 675
  Adaptation and Pathology in the Relationship of Energy Metabolism and Reproductive Physiology......Page 676
Further Reading......Page 677
Introduction......Page 678
Fiber in the Digestive Tract......Page 679
The Small Intestine......Page 680
The Large Intestine......Page 682
Further Reading......Page 683
  The Evolution of the Dietary Fiber Concept......Page 684
  Evidence for the Health Benefits of Dietary Fiber......Page 685
  Soluble NSPs and Plasma Cholesterol......Page 686
  Acetate, Propionate, and Butyrate......Page 687
Relevant Websites......Page 688
  Hyperlipidemia......Page 689
  Diabetes......Page 690
  Bowel Disorders......Page 691
  See also......Page 692
Relevant Websites......Page 693
Resistant Granules RS2......Page 694
Impact of the Food Matrix......Page 695
Analysis......Page 696
Definition and Classification......Page 698
Fermentation in the Colon and Health Benefits......Page 699
Resistant Starch, Oligosaccharides, or Just Dietary Fiber?......Page 700
Further Reading......Page 701
General Characteristics of Finfish......Page 702
Nutritional Value of Fish and Shellfish......Page 703
Omega-3 PUFA in Fish and Shellfish......Page 704
Nonprotein Nitrogen NPN Compounds in Fish......Page 705
Fish Minerals......Page 706
Further Reading......Page 708
Relevant Websites......Page 709
  Overview of Biochemical Functions......Page 710
  Source of One-Carbon Units......Page 711
  Dietary Sources......Page 712
  Transport and Cellular Uptake......Page 713
  Neural Tube and Other Birth Defects......Page 715
Further Reading......Page 716
  Iodine......Page 722
Further Reading......Page 723
  Consumption Monitoring and Calorie Estimation is Highly Inaccurate......Page 725
  Three Myths of Mindless Eating......Page 726
  Mindless Eating Myth 3: Changing Prices Changes Food Choice......Page 727
  The Future of Mindless Eating......Page 728
Further Reading......Page 729
  Foods to Include......Page 730
  Sources of Composition Data......Page 732
  Evaluate or Plan Nutrient Intakes......Page 733
  Poor Analytic Procedures......Page 734
Further Reading......Page 735
History of Food in Culture......Page 737
Food Folklore and Food Culture Today......Page 738
Totality of the Evidence......Page 739
Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trials......Page 740
The Problem......Page 741
Recommend......Page 742
Further Reading......Page 743
  Micronutrient Status of the Population......Page 744
  Micronutrient Intakes......Page 745
  Consumption of Food Vehicles and Potential Exposure to Excess Intake......Page 746
  Global Guidelines......Page 748
  Step 2: Describe the Program......Page 750
  Step 3: Focus the M&E System......Page 751
  Step 5: Justify Conclusions......Page 752
Relevant Websites......Page 753
How does Food Fortification Work?......Page 754
Physical Segregation......Page 755
The Special Case of Rice Fortification......Page 756
Types of Food Fortification......Page 757
Home Fortification or Fortification at the Point of Consumption......Page 758
What Else is Needed to Implement a Fortification Program?......Page 759
Relevant Websites......Page 761
  Toxic Mechanisms......Page 765
  Djenkolic Acid......Page 766
  Practical Applications......Page 767
Further Reading......Page 768
  Toxic and Carcinogenic Effects......Page 770
  Occurrence......Page 771
  Toxicity......Page 772
  Patulin......Page 773
Further Reading......Page 774
  Types of Pesticides......Page 775
  Organochlorines......Page 776
  Testing Pesticides......Page 778
  Future Prospects......Page 779
Further Reading......Page 780
Bacterial Toxins......Page 781
Survival and Growth......Page 782
Diagnosis......Page 783
Diagnosis......Page 784
Clinical Features......Page 785
Background......Page 786
Shigella Species......Page 787
Prevention of Bacterial Food Poisoning......Page 788
Further Reading......Page 789
Occurrence in the Environment and in Food......Page 790
Acrylamide......Page 791
Toxicological Considerations......Page 792
Bisphenol A......Page 793
Further Reading......Page 794
  Skin......Page 797
  How Does Cadmium Contaminate Food?......Page 798
Further Reading......Page 800
  Food Security......Page 801
  Food Security as a Component of Livelihood Security......Page 802
  Indicators of Nutrient Intake at the National, Household, and Individual Level......Page 803
  Common Pitfalls of Analyzing Causes of Malnutrition......Page 805
  Consequences of Food Insecurity......Page 806
  Mitigating the Consequences of Food Insecurity......Page 807
Further Reading......Page 808
Absorption of Fructose......Page 809
Fructose Metabolism......Page 810
Fructose and Glucose Metabolism......Page 811
Inborn Errors of Fructose Metabolism......Page 812
Further Reading......Page 813
  History......Page 814
  Edible Plants and Phytochemicals......Page 816
  Probiotics and Prebiotics......Page 817
  Designer Foods......Page 818
Relevant Websites......Page 819
Glucose: Chemistry and Dietary SourcesGlucose: Chemistry and Dietary SourcesGlucose: Chemistry and Dietary Sources......Page 820
Occurrence......Page 821
Absorption......Page 823
Food Components......Page 824
Possible Effects of Prolonging Absorption Time of Carbohydrate......Page 825
Calculation of the Glycemic Index......Page 826
Further Reading......Page 827
History and Definition of Oral Glucose Tolerance Tests......Page 829
Limitations of the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test......Page 830
Metabolic Basis for Oral Glucose Tolerance......Page 831
Epidemiology of IGT......Page 832
Further Reading......Page 833
Glucose Space......Page 835
Blood Glucose......Page 836
Postabsorptive Stage......Page 837
Hormones and Glucose Homeostasis......Page 838
Counterregulatory Hormones......Page 839
Further Reading......Page 840
  Background and Definition......Page 841
  Concerns Related to the Glycemic Index......Page 842
  The Second Meal Effect......Page 843
  Obesity and Glycemic Index......Page 844
Further Reading......Page 845
Growth of Fetal Size......Page 847
Water......Page 848
Nitrogen Balance, Protein Turnover, and Protein Synthesis......Page 849
Fat......Page 850
Regulation of Fetal Growth......Page 851
The Placenta......Page 852
Interpretation of Growth Curves......Page 853
Possible Adult Disorders Resulting from Intrauterine Growth Restriction......Page 854
Further Reading......Page 855
  Objectives and Activities......Page 856
  Monitoring Growth Successfully......Page 858
  Anthropometric Indicators......Page 859
  Growth References and Standards......Page 860
  Cutoff Points and Interpretation of Anthropometric Measurements......Page 861
  Interventions......Page 863
Further Reading......Page 864
Malnutrition Inequities......Page 865
Household Food Insecurity Inequities......Page 867
Socio-ecological Model of Health......Page 868
Access to Nutritious Foods......Page 869
See also......Page 870
Relevant Websites......Page 871
HIV/AIDS......Page 872
Macronutrient Intervention Studies......Page 873
Interactions Between Antiretroviral Drugs and Nutrition......Page 874
Infant Feeding and HIV/AIDS......Page 875
Further Reading......Page 876
  Biosynthesis and Metabolism......Page 878
  Hyperhomocysteinemia......Page 879
  Other Causes of Hyperhomocysteinemia......Page 880
  Homocysteine, Cognitive Function, and Dementia......Page 881
  B-Vitamin Supplementation......Page 882
  Measurement of Blood Levels......Page 883
Further Reading......Page 884
  The Measurement of Hunger......Page 885
  Hunger and Satiety......Page 886
  Hunger and Eating Behavior......Page 887
  See also......Page 888
Further Reading......Page 889
Diagnostic Issues......Page 890
Treatments Other than Diet......Page 891
Objective Standards......Page 892
Sugar Restriction......Page 893
Zinc Supplementation......Page 894
Further Reading......Page 895
  Amount of Dietary Fat......Page 896
  Saturated Fatty Acids......Page 897
  n-3 Fatty Acids......Page 899
  trans-Fatty Acids......Page 900
  Dietary Cholesterol......Page 901
  Plant Sterols Phytosterols......Page 902
  See also......Page 903
Further Reading......Page 904
  Reduced Salt Intake......Page 917
  Increased Potassium Intake......Page 918
  DASH-Style Dietary Patterns......Page 919
  Fats Other Than Fish Oil and Cholesterol......Page 920
  See also......Page 921
Further Reading......Page 922
  Introduction......Page 923
  Moderation of Alcohol Intake......Page 924
  Consumption of a DASH Diet Increasing Potassium, Magnesium, Calcium, and Fiber Intakes through Increasing Intakes of.........Page 925
  Fish Consumption......Page 927
  Weight Reduction......Page 928
  See also......Page 929
Relevant Websites......Page 930
Insulin Release in Response to Eating and Fasting......Page 931
The Role of the Liver in Glucose Homeostasis......Page 932
Chronic Neuroglycopenia......Page 933
The Postprandial Syndrome......Page 934
Nonhypoglycemia......Page 937
Hepatic and Renal Failure......Page 938
Further Reading......Page 939
Relevant Websites......Page 940
  Introduction......Page 941
  Amino Acid Disorders......Page 942
  Variant Forms of MSUD also Occur......Page 943
  Disorders of Fatty Acid Oxidation......Page 945
  Galacatosemia......Page 947
  Disorders of Fructose Metabolism......Page 948
Further Reading......Page 949
Introduction of Dietary Therapy......Page 951
Fatty Acids......Page 953
Bone Mineral Density......Page 954
Further Reading......Page 955
Introduction......Page 956
Classification of Feeding Disorders in Children......Page 957
Diagnostic Testing......Page 958
Nutritionists......Page 959
Treatment of Feeding Disorders......Page 960
Further Reading......Page 961
  Introduction......Page 963
  Energy......Page 964
  Linoleic Acid n-6 and alpha-Linolenic Acid n-3......Page 965
  Macrominerals: Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, and Fluoride......Page 966
  Microminerals/Trace Elements......Page 967
  Water and Electrolytes......Page 968
  Practical Aspects of Meeting the Nutrient Needs of Infants......Page 969
Further Reading......Page 970
  Magnesium......Page 975
  Markers of Nutritional Assessment......Page 976
  Predictors of Clinical Outcome......Page 978
Further Reading......Page 981
  Resolution of Inflammation by Negative Regulators of PRRs......Page 983
  Postprandial Inflammation: Blood Monocyte Activation......Page 985
Further Reading......Page 986
  Absorption and Metabolism......Page 988
  Adaptations of Thyroid Metabolism to Iodine Deficiency......Page 989
  Impact of Other Micronutrients on Thyroid and Iodine Metabolism......Page 990
  Dietary and Environmental Factors that Affect Iodine Requirements......Page 991
  Urinary Iodine Concentration......Page 992
Relevant Websites......Page 993
Dietary Sources, Absorption, and Metabolism......Page 994
Iodine Requirements......Page 995
Assessment of Iodine Status......Page 996
Iodine Excess and Toxicity......Page 997
Further Reading......Page 998
Absorption......Page 999
Excretion......Page 1002
Iron Deficiency......Page 1003
Recommended Dietary Intakes......Page 1004
Supplementation and Fortification......Page 1005
Further Reading......Page 1006
  Extrahepatic Regulation......Page 1007
  Role of Malonyl-CoA......Page 1008
  Mitochondrial Pathway......Page 1010
  Ketosis......Page 1011
  Pathological Ketosis......Page 1012
Further Reading......Page 1013
  Rationale for Recommended Nutrient Intakes......Page 1014
  Energy......Page 1015
  Protein......Page 1016
  Zinc......Page 1017
  Vitamin A......Page 1018
Further Reading......Page 1019
Functional Anatomy of Lactation......Page 1020
Milk Composition......Page 1021
Exocytotic Pathway I......Page 1022
Transmembrane Pathway IV......Page 1023
Local Control of Synthesis and Secretion......Page 1024
Changes in Milk Composition during Secretory Activation......Page 1025
Further Reading......Page 1026
Historical and Geographic Perspective......Page 1027
Lactose Digestion and Gastrointestinal Function......Page 1028
Osteoporosis......Page 1031
Further Reading......Page 1032
  Legume Types......Page 1034
  Common Bean......Page 1035
  Soybean......Page 1036
  Carbohydrates......Page 1037
Further Reading......Page 1038
  Effects of Diet on Chylomicron Metabolism......Page 1042
  Disorders of Lipoprotein Metabolism......Page 1043
  Type II or Familial Hypercholesterolemia......Page 1044
Further Reading......Page 1045
Carbohydrates......Page 1047
Lipids......Page 1048
Alcoholic liver Disease......Page 1049
Neonatal and Infantile Cholestatic Disorders......Page 1053
Metabolic Liver Disorders......Page 1054
End Stage Liver Disease in Pre- and Post-Liver Transplantation......Page 1057
Further Reading......Page 1059
  Assessment of Gestational Age and Fetal Growth. Methods and Limitations......Page 1060
  Epidemiology......Page 1061
  Conclusions......Page 1063
  Growth......Page 1064
  PN......Page 1065
  Cysteine......Page 1066
  Enteral Nutrition......Page 1067
  Feeding Selection......Page 1068
  Preparation for Discharge......Page 1069
Further Reading......Page 1070
Clinical Features......Page 1071
Nutrition and COPD......Page 1072
Nutritional Support......Page 1073
Tube Feeding......Page 1074
Decreased Intake......Page 1075
High-Energy/High-Protein Diet......Page 1076
Dietary Supplements......Page 1077
Vitamin, Mineral, and Pancreatic Enzyme Supplementation......Page 1078
Epidemiology......Page 1079
Clinical Features......Page 1080
Chronic Lung Disease of Infancy......Page 1081
Further Reading......Page 1082
Chemical and Physical Properties of Lycopene; its Food Sources and Enteric Absorption......Page 1084
Tissue Contents and Kinetics of Lycopene Turnover......Page 1086
Health, Research Models, and Epidemiological Evidence......Page 1087
Evidence for Possible Anticancer Protection by Lycopene......Page 1088
Further Reading......Page 1089
  Distribution of Mg within the Body......Page 1091
  Dietary Sources of Magnesium......Page 1092
  Causes of Mg Deficit......Page 1093
  Recommended Dietary Allowances......Page 1094
Further Reading......Page 1095
  Pathophysiology and Symptoms......Page 1096
  General Nutritional Management of Malabsorption......Page 1097
  Fat Malabsorption: Fat and Fat-Soluble Nutrients......Page 1098
  Route of Nutrition in Malabsorption......Page 1099
  Short Bowel Syndrome......Page 1100
Further Reading......Page 1101
Relevant Websites......Page 1102
  Coexistence of Primary and Secondary Malnutrition......Page 1103
  Caveats for the Diagnosis of Secondary Excess Nutriture......Page 1104
  Management of Secondary Malnutrition......Page 1105
  Dietary and Nutritional Management of Secondary Undernutrition......Page 1106
Further Reading......Page 1107
  Analysis......Page 1108
  Absorption, Transport, and Storage......Page 1109
  Metabolic Function and Essentiality......Page 1110
  Manganese Deficiency......Page 1111
  Manganese Toxicity......Page 1112
  See also......Page 1113
Further Reading......Page 1114
  The Regulation of Meal Size by Gut-Derived Satiety Peptides and Adiposity Signals......Page 1115
  The Effect of Meal Size on Energy Expenditure......Page 1116
  Mechanisms Underlying the Metabolic Effect of Meal Frequency......Page 1117
  The Effect of Meal Frequency on Energy Expenditure......Page 1118
Further reading......Page 1119
Nutritional Value......Page 1120
Bioavailability of Nutrients and Efficiency for Child Development......Page 1121
Lamb......Page 1122
Further Reading......Page 1126
  Intestinal Microbiota in Healthy Individuals......Page 1128
  Development of Intestinal Microbiota......Page 1129
  Effect of Intestinal Microbiota on Intestinal Barrier Function......Page 1130
  Altering Gut Microbiota......Page 1131
  Effect in the Proximal GI Tract......Page 1132
  Effects in the Colon......Page 1133
Further Reading......Page 1134
Composition of the Intestinal Microbiota......Page 1135
Microbiota Research......Page 1136
Modulation by Probiotics......Page 1137
Reducing the Risk and Alleviation of Symptoms of Allergic Disease......Page 1138
Intestinal Microecology and Cancer......Page 1139
Conclusions......Page 1140
Relevant Websites......Page 1141
  Overview......Page 1142
  Energetics......Page 1143
  Insulin-Independent Glucose Uptake......Page 1144
  Changes to Fiber Type Composition......Page 1145
  Changes in Muscle Composition......Page 1146
Further Reading......Page 1147
  History, Signs and Symptoms of Deficiency, and Antimetabolites......Page 1149
  Absorption, Transport, and Storage......Page 1151
  Metabolic Function and Essentiality......Page 1153
  Dietary Sources and High Intakes......Page 1154
Further Reading......Page 1155
Synthesis of Nucleic Acids......Page 1156
Metabolism of Endogenous Nucleic Acids and Excretion of Metabolic End Products......Page 1157
Metabolism of Dietary Nucleic Acids in Humans......Page 1158
Nucleic Acid and Related Compounds in Beverages......Page 1159
Beneficial Effects of Dietary Nucleosides and Nucleotides......Page 1161
Toxicity of Exogenous Nucleic Acids to Humans......Page 1162
Further Reading......Page 1163
Nutrient Requirements: International HarmonizationNutrient Requirements: International HarmonizationNutrient.........Page 1164
  What is a Nutrient?......Page 1165
  Adequate for What?......Page 1167
  Role of Estimates of Average Median Requirements......Page 1168
  Why Have an Estimated Average Requirement?......Page 1169
  Reference Values: Which to Use When......Page 1170
  DRIs for Other Nutrients and Food Constituents......Page 1171
  Application of Risk Assessment Methodology to Nutrients......Page 1172
  Steps Toward International Consensus and Harmonization......Page 1173
Further Reading......Page 1174
  Gene Structure......Page 1175
  Epigenetics......Page 1176
  Transcription......Page 1177
  Translation......Page 1180
Further Reading......Page 1181
Nutrient-Gene Interactions: Health ImplicationsNutrient-Gene Interactions: Health ImplicationsNutrient-Gene Interactions:.........Page 1182
  Genetic Diseases of Interest to Nutrition......Page 1184
Further Reading......Page 1186
Nutrition Transition, Diet Change, and its Implications Nutrition Transition, Diet Change, and its ImplicationsNutrition.........Page 1187
  Shifts in Dietary and Activity Patterns and Body Composition Seem to be Occurring More Rapidly......Page 1188
  Obesity Trends......Page 1189
  Dietary Changes: Shift in the Overall Structure over Time......Page 1190
  Urbanization......Page 1192
  Health Effects: Is the Biology Different? Rather, Do We Have Different Social Structures and Body Composition Patterns.........Page 1193
Further Reading......Page 1194
  Errors of Anthropometric Measurements......Page 1196
  Weight......Page 1197
  Skinfold Thickness......Page 1198
  Growth Velocity......Page 1199
  Children......Page 1200
Further Reading......Page 1201
  Sodium and Potassium......Page 1212
  Calcium......Page 1213
  Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 1217
Relevant Websites......Page 1220
Medical History......Page 1221
Physical Examination......Page 1222
Further Reading......Page 1223
Forms of Nutrition Labeling......Page 1224
History of Nutrition Labeling......Page 1225
Effects of Nutrition Labeling on Consumers......Page 1226
Outlook......Page 1227
Further Reading......Page 1228
Dietary Counseling and Fortification......Page 1229
Artificial Nutritional Support: Home Parenteral Nutrition and Home Enteral Tube Feeding......Page 1230
Home Enteral Tube Feeding......Page 1231
Standards of Care......Page 1232
Monitoring......Page 1233
Outcome......Page 1235
Ethical Issues......Page 1236
Further Reading......Page 1237
Dextrose......Page 1238
Lipid Emulsions......Page 1239
Bone Disease......Page 1240
Infections......Page 1241
Further Reading......Page 1242
  Nasoduodenal or Nasojejunal Route......Page 1243
  Feeding Formula Classification......Page 1244
  Renal......Page 1245
  Indications and Contradictions......Page 1246
Further Reading......Page 1247
  Perioperative Support in Severe Malnutrition......Page 1249
  Dextrose......Page 1250
  Trace Elements......Page 1251
  Titration of Volume......Page 1252
  Metabolic......Page 1253
  Home Parenteral Nutrition......Page 1254
Further Reading......Page 1255
Uses of Nutritional Surveillance Data......Page 1256
Food Supply Data......Page 1257
Food Consumption by Individuals......Page 1258
Examples of Nutritional Surveillance Activities......Page 1259
Food Composition Databases......Page 1260
Further Reading......Page 1265
Types and Sources of Nutritional Surveillance Data in Developing Countries......Page 1267
Household Food Consumption and Food Security......Page 1268
Individual Nutritional Status and Dietary Intake......Page 1269
Further Reading......Page 1279
Relevant Websites......Page 1280
  Walnut......Page 1282
  Fat......Page 1283
  Role in the Diet......Page 1286
Further Reading......Page 1287
  Body Composition in Childhood and Definition of Childhood Obesity......Page 1288
  Physical Activity......Page 1289
  Obesity Associated with Recognized Medical Condition......Page 1290
  Severe Complications......Page 1291
  Prevention of Obesity in Childhood......Page 1292
Further Reading......Page 1294
Further Reading......Page 1301
  Health Impacts......Page 1302
  Assessment......Page 1303
  See also......Page 1304
Further Reading......Page 1305
  Importance of Weight Gain Prevention in Adults......Page 1306
  High-Risk Groups......Page 1307
  Diet and Physical Activity Behaviors......Page 1308
  Reducing the Intake of High Energy-Dense Foods i.e., foods high in fat/sugar......Page 1309
  Identifying Effective Obesity Prevention Interventions......Page 1310
  Lessons from Other Prevention Efforts......Page 1311
Further Reading......Page 1312
Further Reading......Page 1321
Syndromic Obesity......Page 1322
Monogenic Obesity......Page 1323
See also......Page 1326
Discoveries for Body Mass Index......Page 1327
Discoveries for Extreme and Early-Onset Obesity......Page 1330
Translation of New Discoveries......Page 1332
Further Reading......Page 1334
  Anthropometry......Page 1335
  Recognizing Causative Factors of Undernutrition......Page 1336
  Nutritional Assessment Tools......Page 1338
  Oral Nutritional Repletion......Page 1339
  Pharmacological Management of Undernutrition......Page 1340
  Managing Undernutrition in Long-Term Care Institutions......Page 1341
  Micronutrient Deficiency......Page 1342
Further Reading......Page 1343
  Overview of Specific Factors of Aging Influencing Nutritional Requirements......Page 1345
  Established Recommended Intakes for Older Persons......Page 1346
  Macronutrients......Page 1347
  Dietary Guidelines for Function, Health, and Disease Prevention......Page 1349
  Future Considerations......Page 1350
Further Reading......Page 1351
  Mitochondrial Senescence and Oxidative Stress......Page 1352
  Oral Cavity and Alimentary Tract......Page 1353
  Hematological Aging......Page 1354
  Peripheral Nervous System......Page 1355
Further Reading......Page 1356
Plant Products......Page 1357
Undesirable Components......Page 1358
Conclusions and Prospects......Page 1360
Further Reading......Page 1361
Dietary Intake and Body Mass......Page 1362
Calcium......Page 1363
Magnesium......Page 1364
Protein......Page 1365
Nutrient/Gene Interactions......Page 1366
Further Reading......Page 1367
Relevant Websites......Page 1368
  Absorption, Transport, Storage and Status Measurement......Page 1369
  Metabolism and Turnover......Page 1370
  Metabolic Function and Essentiality......Page 1371
  Requirements......Page 1372
Further Reading......Page 1373
  Loss of Appetite, Anorexia......Page 1374
  Ascaris lumbricoides Roundworm......Page 1375
  Hookworms......Page 1376
  Trichuris trichiura Whipworm......Page 1377
  Special Features of Helminth Parasites......Page 1378
  Growth and Protein-Energy Malnutrition......Page 1379
  Prevention......Page 1380
Further Reading......Page 1381
Dietary Sources of Phosphorus......Page 1382
Phosphate Homeostatic Mechanisms......Page 1383
Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism......Page 1384
Further Reading......Page 1385
Phytochemicals: General......Page 1387
Flavonoids......Page 1388
Flavones......Page 1389
Current Estimates of Intake......Page 1390
Bioavailability of Flavonoids......Page 1391
Potential Health Effects......Page 1392
Conclusions......Page 1393
Further Reading......Page 1394
  Biological Activity......Page 1395
  Cardioprotection......Page 1396
  Cancer Prevention......Page 1397
  Menopausal Symptoms......Page 1398
Further Reading......Page 1399
  Kidney Stones and Bone Demineralization......Page 1400
  Cardiovascular Disease......Page 1401
  Recommended Potassium Intake, Current Intake, and Dietary Sources......Page 1402
Further Reading......Page 1403
  Energy......Page 1404
  Vitamin A......Page 1406
  Calcium......Page 1407
  Iron......Page 1408
  Trace Elements: Copper, Selenium, Chromium, Fluoride, Manganese, and Molybdenum......Page 1409
Further Reading......Page 1410
  Food-Borne Infections during Pregnancy......Page 1411
  Excessive Alcohol Consumption during Pregnancy......Page 1412
  Binge Drinking and Social Alcohol Consumption during Pregnancy......Page 1413
  Fish and Pregnancy......Page 1414
  Dioxins and Polychlorinated Biphenyls PCBs......Page 1415
  Caffeine......Page 1416
  Avoiding Foods to Prevent Allergy......Page 1417
Further Reading......Page 1418
  Pregnancy Weight Gain Recommendations......Page 1420
  Maternal Weight Gain and Birth Weight......Page 1421
  Substance Abusers......Page 1422
  Impact of Supplementation......Page 1423
Further Reading......Page 1424
  Theoretical Total Metabolic Costs of Pregnancy......Page 1425
  Basal Metabolic Rate......Page 1426
  Behavioral Changes in Physical Activity......Page 1427
  See also......Page 1428
Further Reading......Page 1429
Evidence from Intervention Studies......Page 1430
Evidence from Maternal Blood Folate Status......Page 1431
Functions of Folate and Vitamin B12 and NTD Etiology......Page 1432
Folate Related Genetic Risk Factors......Page 1434
Primary Prevention......Page 1435
Effects on NTD Prevalence......Page 1436
Recommendations......Page 1437
Further Reading......Page 1438
Pathophysiology of Pre-eclampsia......Page 1439
Prevention......Page 1440
Calcium Supplementation......Page 1441
Zinc Supplementation......Page 1442
Vitamin A, E, and C Supplementation......Page 1443
Further Reading......Page 1444
The Human Placenta......Page 1445
The Mechanisms of Placental Nutrient Transport......Page 1446
Epigenetics and the Placenta......Page 1447
Placental Buffering of Maternal Dietary Intake......Page 1449
Placental Insufficiency and Fetal Growth......Page 1450
Further Reading......Page 1451
  Cyclooxygenase......Page 1452
  Lipoxygenase......Page 1453
  PG and LT Receptors......Page 1454
  GI System......Page 1455
  Renal System......Page 1456
  Regulation of PG and LT Synthesis by Dietary Fatty Acids......Page 1457
Further Reading......Page 1458
  Introduction......Page 1459
  General Nutritional Factors Regulating Amino Acid Catabolism......Page 1460
  Factors Affecting Adaptation......Page 1461
  Principles of Treatment of Protein Deficiency......Page 1462
Relevant Websites......Page 1463
  Digestion......Page 1464
  Stomach Peptic Activity......Page 1465
  Brush Border Membrane and Cytoplasmic Peptidases......Page 1466
  Absorption......Page 1467
  Digestibility......Page 1468
Relevant Websites......Page 1470
Protein: Quality and SourcesProtein: Quality and SourcesProtein: Quality and Sources......Page 1471
  Amino Acid Analysis of Food Proteins......Page 1472
  Amino Acid Scoring Pattern......Page 1473
  Correction for Protein Digestibility......Page 1474
  Amino Acid Profile......Page 1475
  Protein Concentration......Page 1477
Further Reading......Page 1478
Metabolic Demands for Amino Acids......Page 1479
Qualitative Aspects of the Metabolic Demand: Plant versus Animal Sources......Page 1481
Protein-Energy Interactions......Page 1482
Dietary Protein Allowances for Individuals and Populations and Implications of Adaptation......Page 1483
Pregnancy Requirements......Page 1484
Optimal Protein Intakes and Implications of Adaptation for Nutrition Policy......Page 1485
Further Reading......Page 1486
Whole-Body Protein Homeostasis......Page 1487
Models and Tracer Methods for the Study of Protein Turnover......Page 1488
Regulatory Mechanisms of Protein Turnover Control......Page 1490
Postprandial Protein Utilization......Page 1491
See also......Page 1493
Further Reading......Page 1494
  Introduction......Page 1495
  Nutrition Implications of Displacement......Page 1496
  Micronutrients Vitamins and Mineral Deficiencies......Page 1497
  Food Baskets for Populations General Food Distribution......Page 1498
  Challenges......Page 1499
Further Reading......Page 1500
Judaism......Page 1501
Christianity......Page 1502
Hinduism......Page 1503
Conclusion......Page 1504
Further Reading......Page 1505
  Absorption, Transport, and Storage......Page 1506
  Riboflavin Transport at other Sites and Storage......Page 1507
  Metabolism and Excretion......Page 1508
  Malaria......Page 1509
  The Glutathione Reductase Test......Page 1510
  Requirements......Page 1511
Further Reading......Page 1512
  Effects of Agroclimatic Seasonality on Food Availability and Dietary Intakes......Page 1514
  Effects of Agroclimatic Seasonality on Time Allocation and Energy Expenditure......Page 1515
  Seasonal Patterns of Disease......Page 1516
  Coping Strategies......Page 1517
  Body Weight, Body Composition, and Growth......Page 1518
  Extension of the Problem......Page 1519
Further Reading......Page 1521
Absorption and Bioavailability......Page 1522
Metabolism and Distribution......Page 1523
Selenium Deficiency Diseases......Page 1524
Cardiovascular Disease......Page 1526
Dietary Intake of Selenium......Page 1527
Further reading......Page 1528
  Distribution......Page 1529
  Regulation of ECF Sodium......Page 1530
  Adequate, Inadequate, and Excess Sodium......Page 1531
Further Reading......Page 1532
  Gastric Cancer and Stroke......Page 1541
Further Reading......Page 1543
Relevant Websites......Page 1544
  Protein Requirements......Page 1545
  Fat and CHO......Page 1546
  Vitamins and Minerals......Page 1547
  Dietary Supplements......Page 1548
Relevant Websites......Page 1549
Starvation and fasting: Biochemical AspectsStarvation and Fasting: Biochemical AspectsStarvation and fasting: Biochemical.........Page 1550
Carbohydrate Metabolism......Page 1551
Protein Metabolism......Page 1553
General Considerations......Page 1554
Regulation of Adaptation......Page 1555
Prolonged Fasting......Page 1557
Further Reading......Page 1559
  Risks of Protein-Energy Malnutrition......Page 1560
  Organizational Factors......Page 1561
  Communication Problems......Page 1562
  Screening and Assessment......Page 1563
  Artificial Nutritional Support......Page 1565
  Evaluation of Nutritional Support......Page 1570
Further Reading......Page 1571
Sweetened Beverages......Page 1572
Summary......Page 1573
Further Reading......Page 1574
  Frequency......Page 1579
  Zinc Supplementation......Page 1581
  Therapeutic Efficacy of Zinc Treatment for Diarrhea......Page 1582
Further Reading......Page 1583
  What is a Dietary Supplement? How are they Regulated in Different Countries?......Page 1584
  Interactions......Page 1586
  Potential Benefits of Dietary Supplements......Page 1587
Further Reading......Page 1588
  Vitamin A Supplementation......Page 1589
  Iron/Folate Supplementation......Page 1590
  Zinc Supplementation......Page 1591
Further Reading......Page 1592
  Motivation for Micronutrient Supplement Use......Page 1594
  Research Approach for Determining the Health Impact of Micronutrient Supplements......Page 1595
  Iron......Page 1596
  Vitamin E......Page 1597
  Calcium......Page 1598
Further Reading......Page 1599
  Composition of Tea......Page 1601
  Tea and Cardiovascular Disease CVD......Page 1602
  Tea and Obesity......Page 1603
Further Reading......Page 1604
Epidemiology......Page 1605
Etiology......Page 1607
Experimental Thiamin Deficiency in Man and Measurement of Thiamin Status......Page 1608
Clinical Features of Beriberi......Page 1609
Management/Treatment......Page 1610
Case Study......Page 1612
Further Reading......Page 1613
Dietary Sources of Thiamin......Page 1615
Absorption and Ethyl Alcohol......Page 1616
Biological Functions......Page 1617
Recommended Dietary Allowances......Page 1619
Further Reading......Page 1620
  The Physiological Regulation of Thirst......Page 1621
  Osmotic Regulation of Thirst......Page 1624
  Mechanisms for Terminating the Sensation of Thirst......Page 1626
Further Reading......Page 1627
Nutrition and Susceptibility to TuberculosisNutrition and Susceptibility to TuberculosisNutrition and Susceptibility to.........Page 1629
Further Reading......Page 1633
  Nutritional Status of Tuberculosis Patients......Page 1635
  Controlled Intervention Studies of Nutritional Supplements in the Management of TB......Page 1636
  Nutritional Management of TB......Page 1637
Further Reading......Page 1639
  Definition......Page 1641
  Aluminum......Page 1642
  Boron......Page 1648
  Germanium......Page 1649
  Nickel......Page 1650
  Dietary Sources......Page 1651
Further Reading......Page 1652
  Urbanization......Page 1653
  Urban Agriculture......Page 1654
  Nutritional Deficiencies of Urban Populations......Page 1655
  Conclusions......Page 1656
Further Reading......Page 1657
Vegetarian Patterns and Practices......Page 1658
Differences Between Vegetarian Eating and Vegetarianism......Page 1659
Morbidity and Mortality of Vegetarian Versus Omnivorous Diets......Page 1660
Nutritional Adequacy......Page 1661
Possibly Inadequate Vegetarian Dietary Patterns......Page 1662
Conclusions......Page 1663
Further Reading......Page 1664
  Major Molecules in Vitamin A Biochemistry and Physiology......Page 1665
  Intestinal Metabolism......Page 1666
  Relationship of Plasma Retinol to Liver Retinol Concentration......Page 1667
  Tissue Retinoid Metabolism......Page 1668
  Units of Nutritional Activity......Page 1669
  Hypervitaminosis A and Vitamin A Toxicity......Page 1670
Further Reading......Page 1671
  XN and Dark Maladaptation......Page 1673
  Anemia and Poor Growth......Page 1674
  Place Geographic Clustering......Page 1675
  Causal Agents Diet and Infection......Page 1677
  Treatment......Page 1680
Further Reading......Page 1681
  Vitamin B6 Requirements of Infants......Page 1689
Further Reading......Page 1692
General Description and Scientific Name......Page 1706
Antioxidant Activity......Page 1707
Over-Dosage......Page 1708
Precautions and Adverse Reactions......Page 1709
Absorption and Plasma Transport......Page 1710
Chronic Disease Prevention......Page 1711
Further Reading......Page 1712
  Dietary Sources......Page 1713
  Absorption Metabolism and Excretion......Page 1714
  Tocopherols as Antioxidants......Page 1716
  Tocopherols and Other Metabolic Functions......Page 1717
  Tocopherols and Cardiovascular Disease - Epidemiological Evidence......Page 1718
  Vitamin E Status and Requirements......Page 1719
Further Reading......Page 1720
Food Sources, Absorption, and Catabolism......Page 1721
Vitamin K-Dependent VKD Proteins......Page 1722
Vitamin K and Mineralization......Page 1723
Potential Non-Gla Functions of Vitamin K......Page 1724
Population Groups at Risk of Vitamin K Deficiency......Page 1725
Further Reading......Page 1726
  Dietary Management......Page 1727
  Exercise and Physical Activity......Page 1729
  Behavioral Modification......Page 1731
Further Reading......Page 1732
  Weight Cycling and Mortality......Page 1733
  Weight Cycling and Cardiovascular Disease......Page 1735
  Methodological Issues......Page 1736
  Conclusions......Page 1737
Further Reading......Page 1738
  The National Weight Control Registry......Page 1739
  Very Low-Calorie Diets......Page 1740
  Sedentary Activities......Page 1741
  Incentives for Weight Loss and Weight Loss Maintenance......Page 1742
Further Reading......Page 1743
  Bran......Page 1745
  Germ......Page 1746
  Cardiovascular Disease......Page 1747
  Type 2 Diabetes......Page 1748
  Cancer......Page 1749
  Wholegrains, Body Weight, and Body Fatness......Page 1751
  Wholegrains, Antioxidants, and Phytochemicals......Page 1752
Relevant Websites......Page 1753
Zinc in Foods......Page 1754
Zinc Absorption......Page 1755
Zinc Transcription Factors......Page 1756
Growth......Page 1757
Human Zinc Deficiency......Page 1758
Recommended Intakes......Page 1759
Further Reading......Page 1760
Inadequate Dietary Zinc Intake......Page 1761
Prevalence of Zinc Deficiency in Developing Countries......Page 1762
Child Growth......Page 1763
Preventive Zinc Supplementation......Page 1764
Dietary Diversification and Modification......Page 1765
Further Reading......Page 1766
  Famines in History......Page 1767
  Market Failure......Page 1768
  New Variant Famine Hypothesis......Page 1771
  Coping Strategies......Page 1772
Further Reading......Page 1773