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دانلود کتاب Encyclopedia of geochemistry : a comprehensive reference source on the chemistry of the earth
دانلود کتاب دایره المعارف ژئوشیمی: منبع مرجع جامع در مورد شیمی زمین
مشخصات کتاب
Encyclopedia of geochemistry : a comprehensive reference source on the chemistry of the earth
ویرایش: نویسندگان: William M. White, William H. Casey, Bernard Marty, Hisayoshi Yurimoto (eds.) سری: Encyclopedia of earth sciences series ISBN (شابک) : 9781787853171, 1787853179 ناشر: Springer سال نشر: 2020 تعداد صفحات: [1574] زبان: English فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود) حجم فایل: 59 Mb
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توجه داشته باشید کتاب دایره المعارف ژئوشیمی: منبع مرجع جامع در مورد شیمی زمین نسخه زبان اصلی می باشد و کتاب ترجمه شده به فارسی نمی باشد. وبسایت اینترنشنال لایبرری ارائه دهنده کتاب های زبان اصلی می باشد و هیچ گونه کتاب ترجمه شده یا نوشته شده به فارسی را ارائه نمی دهد.
توضیحاتی در مورد کتاب دایره المعارف ژئوشیمی: منبع مرجع جامع در مورد شیمی زمین
ژئوشیمی از تکنیک ها و رویکردهای شیمیایی برای درک زمین و نحوه عملکرد آن استفاده می کند. تقریباً همه جنبه‌های علوم زمین را شامل می‌شود، از موضوعات کاربردی مانند جستجوی منابع انرژی و معدنی، آلودگی محیطی و تغییرات آب و هوایی گرفته تا سؤالات اساسی‌تری مانند منشاء و ترکیب زمین، منشأ و تکامل حیات، سنگ. هوازدگی و دگرگونی، و الگوی گردش اقیانوس و گوشته.
توضیحاتی درمورد کتاب به خارجی
Geochemistry applies chemical techniques and approaches to understanding the Earth and how it works. It touches upon almost every aspect of earth science, ranging from applied topics such as the search for energy and mineral resources, environmental pollution, and climate change to more basic questions such as the Earth's origin and composition, the origin and evolution of life, rock weathering and metamorphism, and the pattern of ocean and mantle circulation.
فهرست مطالب
Contents Contributors Preface Aknowledgments A Ab Initio Calculations Definition Overview Hartree-Fock (HF) Theory Basis Sets Electron Correlation Methods Solvation Effects Conclusions Cross-References References Achondrites Definition Introduction Acapulcoites and Lodranites Winonaites and Silicate Clasts in IAB and IIICD Irons Brachinites Ureilites IIE Silicate Clasts Angrites Aubrites HED Meteorites Mesosiderites Pallasites Lunar Meteorites Martian Meteorites Ungrouped Achondrites Summary Cross-References References Acid Deposition Definition Landscape Sensitivity to Acid Deposition History of Acid Deposition Effects The Key Role of Soils The Status of Recovery from Acid Deposition in 2017 Cross-References References Acid-Base Reactions The Braønsted-Lowry Concept pH The Lewis Acid Concept Acidic and Basic Rocks Cross-References References Activation Parameters: Energy, Enthalpy, Entropy, and Volume Definition Transition State Theory and Elementary Versus Overall Reactions Activation Parameters Conclusion Cross-References References Activity and Activity Coefficients Definition Molar Abundance and Ideal Behavior Nonideal Chemical Behavior and Activity Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals Introduction Chemistry and Geochemical Behavior Geological Applications Summary Cross-References References Aluminum Properties History and Use Isotopes and Cosmochemistry Mineralogy and Geochemistry Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Analytical Techniques Definition Compositional and Isotopic Analysis Spectroscopic Techniques Mass Spectrometric Techniques Crystalline, Molecular, Oxidation State, and Chemical Bonding Characterization Summary Cross-References References Anthropogenic CO Synonyms Definition Sources of Anthropogenic CO Environmental Concerns Over Anthropogenic CO Emissions Balancing the Carbon Budget Conclusion Cross-References References Antimony Properties History and Use Antimony Minerals Aqueous Geochemistry Summary Cross-References References Aqueous Solutions Definition Aqueous Solutions in Geochemistry Structure Thermodynamic Description Acid-Base Reactions Complexation Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Dissolution/Precipitation Reactions Adsorption/Partitioning Reactions Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Archeological Geochemistry Definition Introduction Geochemical Study of Inorganic Materials Provenance Studies Provenance of Pottery and Glass Metals and their Geologic Sources Geochemical Study of Organic Materials Organic Residues Diet and Environment Mobility Conclusion Cross-References References Argon Properties Discovery and Utility Distribution in the Cosmos and on Earth Significance in Geochemistry, Geochronology, and the Composition of Air Summary Cross-References References Argon Isotopes Introduction Atmospheric Argon Isotopes Radiochronometric Dating with Argon Isotopes Tracing Geological Processes with Argon Isotopes Conclusion Cross-References References Arsenic Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity References Astatine Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity References Atmophile Elements Synonyms Definition Overview Atmophiles in Earth´s Atmosphere Summary Cross-References References Atmospheric Evolution Definition Introduction The Atmosphere and Climate A Climate Primer The Faint Young Sun Paradox Nitrogen Dinitrogen Reactive N Species Oxygen and Ozone The History of O Sources and Sinks of Atmospheric Oxygen Photochemistry, Ozone, and a Model for the Great Oxidation Carbon Dioxide Control of CO by Ocean Chemistry Calcium Carbonate Formation Geological Control of Alkalinity: The Carbonate-Silicate Thermostat Proxy Constraints on, and History of, Atmospheric CO Water Discussion Atmospheric Homeostasis, Vernadsky´s ``Biosphere,´´ and the Gaia Hypothesis Comparative Planetology Outlook Cross-References References Atomic Absorption, Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy, and Infrared Spectroscopy Definition Introduction Basic Principles of Spectroscopy Atomic Spectroscopy Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) Flame Emission Spectroscopy Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) Background and History of Development of Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) Technology Principles of Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy Thermal Equilibrium Models and Excitation Mechanisms Molecular Spectroscopy Factors Affecting the Frequency of Vibration IR Instrumentation Summary Cross-References References Further Reading Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes Definitions Nuclear Structure and Stability Summary Cross-References References Authigenesis Definition Some Complementary Aspects of the Definition Where to Expect Authigenesis and of Which Minerals? In Continental Aerial Environments In Marine Environments In Buried Sediments In Volcanic Ash Beds In Hydrothermal Environments Authigenesis at Crystal Scale Summary: ``Authigenesis´´ Needs to be Precisely Defined for Any Use Cross-References References B Barium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Barium Isotopes Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Beryllium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Isotopic Systematics Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Beryllium Isotopes Definition Be Production, Delivery, and Analysis Be Production and/or Delivery Sample Selection, Preparation, and Measurement Applications of In Situ Be Exposure Dating Erosion Rate Estimates Landscape History and Sediment Tracing Applications of Meteoric Be Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Biogenic Methane Definition Methanogenic Pathways Ecology of Microbial Methanogenesis Biogenic Methanogenesis in the Subsurface Accumulations of Biogenic Methane Fate of Biogenic Methane and Impact on Climate Stable Isotopic Composition of Methane Thermochemical Methanogenesis Summary Cross-References References Biogeochemistry Definition Introduction Summary Cross-References References Biological Pump Definition Introduction Export Sinking Active Transport Physical Transport Remineralization and Transfer Vertical Profiles Remineralization Biological Carbon Pump Global Pattern Climate and Bioengineering Summary Cross-References References Biomarker: Assessment of Thermal Maturity Definition Introduction Methods and General Approach Parameters Data Interpretation Supporting Analyses Summary Cross-References References Biomarkers: Coal Definition Introduction Biomarkers and Paleovegetation n-Alkane Distribution Sesquiterpenoids Diterpenoids Triterpenoids Cadalane-Type Biopolymers Biomarkers and Paleoclimate Biomarkers and the Environment of Peat and Coal Deposition Biomarkers for Carbon Cycling in Peat Bogs Biomarkers and Thermal Maturity of Coals Summary Cross-References References Biomarkers: Petroleum Definition Introduction Analytical Methods for Biomarkers Biosynthesis of Biomarker Precursors Biomarkers as Source and Environmental Indicators Age-Diagnostic Biomarkers Biomarker Stereochemistry Summary Cross-References References Biopolymers and Macromolecules Definition Types of Macromolecules in Geosystems Biomacromolecules as a Source of Energy, Carbon, and Nutrients Biomacromolecules as Information Carriers Biomacromolecules as Catalysts Residual Carbon: Macromolecularity as a Condition for Persistence Summary Cross-References References Bismuth Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Mineralogy Economic Geology and Mining Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Black Shales and Sapropels Synonyms Definition Characteristics References Boron Properties History and Use Natural Abundance Minerals and Ores Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Boron Stable Isotopes Properties History and Use Geochemical and Isotopic Behavior Applications to Geochemical Studies Boron Isotopes as a Tracer of Human Activities Phase Partitioning Fractionation of Boron Isotopes Between Mineral and Fluid: The Case of Tourmaline Fractionation of Boron Isotopes Between CaCO and Seawater: The deltaB-pH Proxy Tracing the Recycling of Subducted Oceanic Crust Summary Cross-References References Bromine Properties History and Use Isotopes Mineralogy and Geochemistry Geochemistry of Bromine in Terrestrial Reservoirs Bromine in Upper Crust, Oceans, and Atmosphere Bromine in Igneous Processes and in the Mantle Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References C Cadmium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Caesium Properties History and Uses Abundances General Behavior in Fluid/Melt-Mineral Systems Subduction Zone Cycling of Caesium Caesium Behavior During Partial Melting in the Continental Crust Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Calcium Properties History and Use Natural Abundance Geochemical Cycling Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Calcium Isotopes Introduction Stable Calcium Isotope Variations and Global Ca Cycle Radiogenic Calcium Isotopes in Geological Reservoirs Future Directions in Ca Isotope Research Advances in Ca Isotope Analysis Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Calorimetry Definition Heat Capacity Measurement Reaction Calorimetry Summary Cross-References References Carbon Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Carbon Minerals Organic Carbon and Energy Summary Cross-References References Carbon Cycle Definition Inorganic Carbon Organic Carbon Organic Matter Preservation and Geologic Processes Summary Cross-References References Carbon Isotopes Synonyms Definition Introduction and Main Applications Carbon Isotopes Isotopic Nomenclature and Fractionation Mechanisms Carbon Isotopic Measurements Distribution of Carbon Isotopes in Nature Carbon Isotopes and the Emergence of Life Carbon Isotopes in Shallow Seawater Tracing of Seawater Masses, Surface Water Productivity, and Ecology Chemostratigraphy and Carbon Isotope Excursions (CIE) Processes Limiting the Use of C within Chemostratigraphy Conclusions Cross-References References Carbonate Compensation Depth Definition Factors Controlling CCD Spatiotemporal Variability Buffering Anthropogenic CO Cross-References References Carbonate Minerals and the CO-Carbonic Acid System Definition Introduction CO-Carbonic Acid-Carbonate System and Seawater Thermodynamic and Thermophysical Data for Major Carbonate Minerals Carbonate Mineral Stability in the System CaCO-MgCO Importance of Reaction of Calcium Silicate, Calcium Carbonate, and CO in Earth History Carbonate Mineral Dissolution and Precipitation Rates CO-Carbonic Acid-Carbonate System of Ocean Waters Isotopes in Carbonates in Interpretation of Earth History Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments References Cerium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Geochronology and Isotope Geochemistry Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Chalcophile Elements Definition Distribution in Terrestrial Rocks Summary Cross-References References Chelation Definition References Chemical Bonds Definition Traditional Valence Bonds Hydrogen Bonds as Valence Bonds London Dispersion (van der Waals) Forces Bonds and the Distribution of Elements Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Chemical Weathering Definition Introduction Chemical Weathering: A Major Geological Process The Different Approaches Used to Study Chemical Weathering Unifying Natural and Experimental Chemical Weathering Rates The Effect of Water Availability and Time Duration for the Presence of Water Summary and Conclusions Cross-References Bibliography Chlorine Properties History and Use Distribution in the Cosmos and on Earth Significance in Geochemistry Chlorine Isotopes Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Chlorine Isotopes Introduction History and Overview Stable Chlorine Isotope Measurements Chlorine Isotope Fractionations Key Research Findings and Applications as a Geochemical Tracer Summary and Future Directions Cross-References References Chondrites Definition Alteration of Chondrites Classification Oxygen Isotopes Ages of Chondrites Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Chondrules Definition Chemistry and Mineralogy of Chondrules Oxygen Isotope Compositions of Chondrules Chondrule Precursor Material Thermal Histories of Chondrules Ages of Chondrules Chondrule-Formation Models Summary Cross-References References Chromium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Chromium Isotopes Definition Introduction Methods Cosmochemistry High-Temperature Terrestrial Settings Environmental Applications Cr Isotopes as a Paleoredox Proxy Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Clapeyron´s Equation Definition Clapeyron´s Equation Summary Cross-References References Clay Membranes Definition Geochemical Importance Phenomenology Fundamental Basis Mathematical Formulation Unresolved Issues Summary Cross-References References Clay Minerals Definition Introduction Clay Mineral Structure and Ion Exchange Common Clay Minerals Gibbsite, Brucite, and Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH) Kaolin Group Smectite Group Vermiculites Mica Group Chlorite Group Clay Mineral Formation Direct Precipitation or Neoformation Diagenesis and Solid-State Alteration Detrital Inheritance Clay Mineral Isotope Geochemistry Clay Minerals in the Solar System Clay Mineral Uses Kaolinites Smectites Micas Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments References Coal Definition Coal Origins Peat Mires Peat Accumulation and Preservation Peats Through Geologic Time Coalification Coal Classification: Rank, Grade, and Types Coal Rank Coal Grade Coal Types Coal Microlithotypes Coal Macerals Huminite-Vitrinite Inertinite Liptinite Coal Molecular Structure Mineral Content Silicate Minerals Carbonate Minerals Sulfide and Sulfate Minerals Major, Minor, and Trace Elements Coal Utilization Conclusions Cross-References References Cobalt Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Colloids Definition Introduction Colloidal Suspension Properties Examples of Colloids on Earth Summary Cross-References References Complexes Synonyms Definition Complex Formation and Coordination Chemistry Inner-Sphere and Outer-Sphere Complex Formation Complex Speciation and Stability Complex Speciation in the Environment Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis Definition Analytical Methods: GC-IRMS Recent Developments Compound Separations Without a GC High-Temperature GC-IRMS Site-Specific Isotope Measurements Selected Applications in Geoscience The Alkenone-deltaC Method for pCO C-Depleted Biomarkers and Methane Cycling Summary Cross-References References Copper Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior: Magmatic Processes Geochemical Behavior: Hydrothermal Processes Ore Deposits Natural Waters Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Copper Isotopes Synonyms Introduction Analysis Meteorites Igneous Rocks Planetary Accretion and Differentiation Impact-Driven Loss of Cu Low Temperature Environments Biomedical Applications Cross-References References Cosmic Elemental Abundances Definition The Concept of Cosmic Abundances Historical Background Abundances of Elements in the Sun and in Meteorites Summary Cross-References References Cosmogenic Nuclides Definition Introduction Production of Cosmogenic Nuclides Analytical Aspects Cosmogenic Nuclides in Extraterrestrial Samples Cosmogenic Nuclides in Terrestrial Rocks Meteoric Be (and C) Summary Cross-References References Critical Points Definition Elaboration Cross-References References Critical Zone Synonyms Definition Introduction Essential Concepts Current Investigations Conclusions Cross-References References Crystal Chemistry Definition Stereochemistry Atoms Coordination Polyhedra Polyhedral Arrangements Shared Polyhedral Elements Why Are Some Structures Stable While Others Do Not Occur? Crystallography and Crystal Symmetry Rotational Symmetry Crystal Classes Translational Symmetry Elements Space Groups Crystallochemical Phenomena Polymorphism and Phase Transformations Solid Solution and Exsolution Other Phenomena Cross-References References Crystal Field Theory Cross-References References D Debye-Hückel Equation Definition Debye-Hückel Models Model Comparison to Experiments Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Density Functional Theory Definition Overview Functionals Other Features of DFT Solid State and Plane Waves Conclusions Cross-References References Diagenesis Synonyms Definition The Diagenetic Cycle Methods Applied to Study of Siliciclastic and Carbonate Rocks Carbonate Diagenesis Early Diagenetic Realm Intermediate-to-Deep Burial Diagenetic Realm Dolomitization Siliciclastic (Sandstones and Mudrock) Diagenesis Early Diagenesis Burial Diagenesis Novel Approaches to Studying Diagenesis Summary Cross-References References Diffusion Definition Fick´s Laws of Diffusion Types of Diffusion Diffusion Coefficients Methods for Measuring Diffusion Coefficients Diffusion Length and Closure Temperature Summary Cross-References References Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM) Definition Introduction Sample Collection and Bulk Quantification Characterization Importance to the Carbon Cycle and Current Questions Summary Cross-References References Dolomite and Dolomitization Definition Crystal Structure and Geochemistry Kinetics of Precipitation Geological Significance and Occurrence History and Use Summary Cross-References References Dysprosium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References E Earth´s Atmosphere Definition Overview History of the Origins Modern Theories of Earth´s Atmosphere Formation Asteroids or Comets: The Long-Standing Controversy Timing and Processes of the Earth´s Atmosphere Formation Summary Cross-References References Earth´s Continental Crust Definition Introduction Composition and Structure Composition of the Bulk Continental Crust and Implications for Its Formation Tectonic Setting of Crust Formation Temporal Evolution of the Continental Crust Crustal Growth Earth´s Earliest Crust Summary Acknowledgments References Earth´s Core Definition Properties Formation Formation Conditions and Composition Inner-Outer Core Building Compositional Models of the Planet and Core Core Composition and Its ``Light Element(s)´´ Power to Drive the Geodynamo and Radioactive Elements in the Core The Age of Core-Mantle Separation Inner Core and Its Age of Crystallization Summary Cross-References References Earth´s Oceanic Crust Definition Introduction Composition of the Upper Oceanic Crust: Major Elements Composition of the Upper Oceanic Crust: Trace Elements MOR Dikes Gabbroic Layer Bulk Composition of the Oceanic Crust Summary Cross-References References Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA) Definition Electron Source Analytical Resolution X-ray Spectrometers Quantitative Analysis X-ray Mapping Sample Preparation and Materials Conclusions References Electronegativity Definition Introduction Electronegativity Scales Electronegativity and Chemical Context Electronegativity Equalization Applications Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Elements: Metalloids Definition Overview Conclusions References Enthalpy Cross-References References Entropy Introduction and Definition Background and Framework The Thermodynamic Concept of Entropy The Clausius Inequality Using the Second Law Entropy Criteria for Direction and Equilibrium Measuring Entropy Clapeyron Equation The Molecular Basis of Entropy Cross-References References Epigenesis Definition Epigenetic Mineral Deposits Controversy Regarding the Syngenetic or Epigenetic Origin of Mineral Deposits Mineral Systems with Syngenetic and Epigenetic Components Summary Cross-References References Equilibrium Definition Cross-References References Equilibrium Constant Definition Introduction Equilibrium Condition Standard Equilibrium Constant Standard Chemical Potential Gaseous Systems Condensed Phases Solutions Effect of Temperature on the Equilibrium Constant Examples Cross-References References Erbium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Europium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Evaporites Synonyms Definition How Evaporite Salts Form Brine Chemistry and Evolution Marine Brine Nonmarine Brine Genetic Mechanism and Salt Texture World-Scale Depositional Associations Platform Evaporites Basinwide Evaporites Lacustrine (Nonmarine) Evaporites Summary Cross-References References Experimental Mineralogy and Petrology Definition History and Introduction Phase Equilibrium Experiments: The Mineralogy and Petrology of the Earth Fluid, Melt, and Rheological Behavior at High Pressure and Temperature Low-Temperature Mineral Solubility and Kinetic and Diffusion Studies Mineral Physics and Experimental Measurement Techniques Mineral Synthesis Present and Future Developments Summary Cross-References References F Ferromanganese Crusts and Nodules: Rocks That Grow Synonyms Definition Introduction Formation and Composition Mechanism of Chemical Sedimentation Structure and Texture Growth Rates Mineralogy Metal Concentration Geologic Setting and Distribution Crusts Nodules Economic Potential Regional-Scale Metal Grade and Tonnage Exploration and Mining Progress Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Fick´s Law Definition Fick´s First Law Fick´s Second Law Solution of Constant Concentration on the Surface Solution of Thin Film Source Summary Cross-References References Fission Track Analysis Definition Introduction: What Are Fission Tracks? Revealing Fission Tracks Fission Track Dating Track Counting and Density Measurement Dating Methods and Determination of U Concentration Fission Track Annealing Thermal History Modeling Summary Cross-References References Fluid Inclusions Definition Introduction Information Available from Fluid Inclusions Temperature Pressure Fluid Density Fluid Composition Synthetic Fluid Inclusions Post-Entrapment Changes Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Fluid-Rock Interaction Definition Introduction and Concepts Practical Aspects of Fluid-Rock Interaction Active Research Areas Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Fluorine Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Abundances Mineralogical Hosts Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Formation and Evolution of the Earth Definition Introduction The Formation of the Solar System The Formation of the Earth-Moon System The Early Earth How Does the Mantle-Crust System Evolve? The Early Evolution of the Ocean and the Atmosphere Conclusion Summary Cross-References References Fractional Crystallization and Assimilation Definitions Historical Development of Fractional Crystallization Styles of Closed-System Crystallization Models of RAFC Summary Cross-References References Free Energy Cross-References References Fugacity Definition Introduction Elaboration Conclusions Cross-References References G Gadolinium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Gallium Properties History and Use Cosmochemical Behavior Geochemical Behavior Aqueous Geochemistry Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Definition Introduction GC-MS Analysis GC-MS for Biomarker Elucidations Petroleum Exploration Environmental Impacts and Forensic Applications Anthropogenic Impacts on Geological Matrices Paleoclimatology Modern Environmental Studies Conclusions Cross-References References Gas Hydrates Definition Introduction Structure and Characteristics of Gas Hydrates Gas Hydrate Resources Locating Gas Hydrate Zones Production of Methane from Gas Hydrates Challenges Faced During Extraction of Methane (Field Trials) Current Status of Natural Gas Hydrate Exploitation Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Gas Source Mass Spectrometry (GS-MS) Synonyms Definition Introduction Stable Isotope Mass Spectrometry Noble Gas Mass Spectrometry Summary Cross-References References Geochemical Classification of Elements Definition Introduction Partitioning Classifications Geochemical Classifications Cosmochemical Classifications Using Elements in Geochemistry and Cosmochemistry Summary Cross-References References Geochemical Exploration Definition Background Dispersion Processes Sampling Media and Methods Analytical Techniques Data Analysis and Interpretation Summary Cross-References References Geochemical Reference Materials Definition History and Production of Geochemical Reference Materials Cross-References References Geochemical Thermodynamics Definition Introduction Laws of Thermodynamics Temperature Energy, Work, and Heat Enthalpy and Heat Capacity Entropy Applications of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics Partial Molar Thermodynamic Functions: Chemical Potential A Geochemical Example Conclusions Cross-References References Geochemistry Definition Impact Physicochemical Basis Breadth and Subdisciplines Low-Temperature Geochemistry Biogeochemistry Organic Geochemistry High-Temperature Geochemistry Isotope Geochemistry Cosmochemistry Summary Cross-References References Geochronology and Radiogenic Isotopes Definition Introduction Fundamentals Basic Equation of Radioactive Decay Geochronology Applications with No (or Correctible) Preexisting Daughter Nuclides The Isochron Method Pb-Pb Isochrons Examples and Presentation Zircon U-Pb Geochronology K-Ar and Ar-Ar Geochronology Garnet Lu-Hf and Sm-Nd Geochronology Tracer Isotopes and Model ``Ages´´ Summary Cross-References References Geologic Time Scale Definition Time Scale Construction Chemostratigraphy Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology Summary Cross-References References Geoneutrinos Definition Geoneutrino Detection Constraining Earth´s Composition and Terrestrial Heat Production Future Studies Cross-References References Geothermal Systems Definition Introduction Heat Sources Fluid Sources Primary Geothermal Fluids Secondary Geothermal Fluids Fluid-Rock Interactions Summary Cross-References References Geothermometry and Geobarometry Origins and Definitions Sources for Commonly Used Thermobarometers An Illustration of Common Pitfalls: Controversy at the Bishop Tuff (BT) Lessons from the Bishop Tuff Univariant and Multivariant Equilibria Thermodynamic Basis of Multivariant Equilibria The Meaning of K To Construct a Thermobarometer Putting Theory into Practice (And the Problems Therein) Using Calorimetric Data and Activity Models Summary Part I: Guidelines for Calibration of a Thermobarometer Part II: Guidelines for Applying Thermobarometers to Nature Cross-References References Germanium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Environmental Significance Summary Cross-References References Giant Impact Hypothesis Definition Rise of Giant Impact Hypothesis Special or Common Event? Approaching Shadow Summary Cross-References References Gibbs-Duhem Equation Definition Introduction Elaboration Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Gold Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity References Gouy-Chapman Theory Definition Introduction Gouy-Chapman Scaling Counterion Condensation and Coion Exclusion Validating Gouy-Chapman Theory Summary Cross-References References H Hafnium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Hafnium Isotopes Introduction History Geochemical Properties Lu-Hf System Fundamentals Isotopic Composition of CHUR and BSE The Seawater Array Lu-Hf Garnet Geochronology Summary Cross-References References Halide Minerals Definition Introduction Simple Halides Halide Complexes Oxyhydroxide Halides Conclusions Cross-References References Halogens Definition Properties Contrasting Geochemical Behaviors Discovery and Utilization Distribution on Earth and in the Cosmos Significance in Geochemistry and Geochronology Summary Cross-References References Heat Capacity Definition Chemical Thermodynamics Low Temperature Physics Heat Capacity Measurements Conclusion Cross-References References Heat-Producing Elements (HPEs) Definition Radiogenic Heat Production Concentrations of Th, U, and K in the Bulk Silicate Earth The Earth´s Heat Budget Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Helium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Helium Isotopes Definition Variations in He Isotope Ratios Terrestrial Helium Reservoir Summary Cross-References References Henry´s Law Synonyms Definition Henry´s Law and Gas Solubility Broader Application of Henry´s Law Cross-References References High Field Strength Elements Definition Geochemical Behavior HFSE Fractionation Summary Cross-References References High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Definition Overview FT-ICR MS Data Applications Summary Cross-References References History of Geochemistry Definition Early Roots in Alchemy and Chemistry Fathers of Geochemistry: Clarke, Goldschmidt, and Vernadsky Birth and Development of Isotope Geochemistry Geochronology Radiogenic Isotope Geochemistry Stable Isotope Geochemistry The Evolution of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks Chemistry of the Earth´s Surface Weathering and the Critical Zone Chemical Oceanography Organic Geochemistry Biogeochemistry Cosmochemistry Summary Cross-References References Holmium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Hydrocarbons Definition Introduction Analysis and Identification Occurrence in the Biosphere Hydrocarbons in Bacteria Hydrocarbons in Archaea Hydrocarbons in Cyanobacteria Hydrocarbons in Microalgae Hydrocarbons in Vascular Plants Occurrence of Biogenic Hydrocarbons in the Geosphere Ancient Sediments Hydrocarbons in Coal Occurrence of Hydrocarbons in Petroleum Pollutant Sources of Hydrocarbons Extraterrestrial Hydrocarbons Summary Cross-References References Hydrogen Properties History and Use Occurrence Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Hydrogen Isotopes Definition Introduction and Occurrence Nomenclature of Hydrogen Stable Isotope Ratios and Standardization of delta-Values Analytical Methods Applications of Hydrogen Stable Isotopes Hydrogen Stable Isotope Distribution in Nature Hydrogen Isotopes in the Global Water Cycle Hydrogen in Biota Hydrogen in Fossil Fuels, Minerals, and Rocks Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Hydrologic Cycle Definition Reservoirs and Fluxes of the Hydrologic Cycle Main Processes of the Hydrologic Cycle Measurements of the Hydrologic Cycle Components Spatial and Temporal Variability of the Hydrologic Cycle Link Between Hydrologic Cycle, Energy Balance, and Climate Change Summary References Hydrothermal Alteration Definition Alteration Processes The Source and Chemistry of the Thermal Fluid Formation of Hydrothermal Minerals Hydrothermal Alteration and Metal Deposits Summary Cross-References References Hydrothermal Solutions Definition Introduction Physicochemical Properties of Hydrothermal Solutions Summary Cross-References References Hydrothermal Vents Definition Introduction Water-Rock Interactions Magma Degassing Carbon Cycling Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Hypogene Definition Origin of the Thermal Fluid Formation of Hypogene Mineral Deposits Occurrence of Hypogene Mineral Deposits Summary Cross-References References I Incompatible Elements Definition Use of Incompatible Elements in Geochemistry Conclusion Cross-References References Indium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary References Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) Definition Introduction Basic Principles The Inductively Coupled Plasma as an Ion Source Sample Introduction into the Plasma Sampler/Skimmer Interface Quadrupole ICP-MS Important Characteristics of a Mass Spectrometer HR-ICP-MS: Improved Mass Resolution MC-ICP-MS: Achieving High-Precision Isotope Ratio Measurements Interferences and Matrix Effects Conclusions Cross-References References Iodine Properties History and Use Isotopes Mineralogy and Geochemistry Geochemistry of Iodine in Terrestrial Reservoirs Iodine in Upper Crust, Oceans, and Atmosphere Iodine in Igneous Processes and Mantle Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Ion Exchange Chromatography Definition Introduction Principles of Ion Chromatography Structure of Ion Exchange Resins The Ion Exchange Process Batch and Column Methods Batch Method Column Method The Retention Volume: Mobile Phase Required for Solute Elution The Efficiency of an Ion Exchange Column to Separate Elution Peaks General Considerations Strategy (i) Strategy (ii) Strategy (iii) Conclusion Cross-References References Ion Microprobe Definition Operation Principle Advantages of Ion Microprobe Technique Successful Applications to Geo-/Cosmo-Chemistry and Recent Advancements Summary Cross-References Bibliography Ionic Radii Definition and Assumptions Methods of Measurement The Determination of Ionic Radii The Shannon (1976) Dataset: ``Effective Ionic Radii´´ Patterns in Ionic Radii The Use of Ionic Radii in Mineralogy and Petrology Summary References Iridium Properties History and Use Geochemical Properties Iridium and Mass Extinctions Natural Occurrence Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Iron Properties History and Use Isotope Cosmochemistry Geochemical Behavior Iron Mineralogy Core Geochemistry Mantle Geochemistry Comparative Planetology of Iron Iron in Earth´s Crust Iron on the Martian Surface Iron in Natural Waters Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Iron Formations Definition Geologic Occurrences Iron Sources and Relations to Seawater Chemistry The Role of Biology in IF Genesis Summary Cross-References References Iron Isotopes Definition Introduction Methods Biogeochemical Iron Cycling The Sedimentary Iron Isotope Record High Temperature Processes: Terrestrial Mantle and Crustal Rocks Cosmochemistry Summary and Conclusion References Iron Meteorites Definition Introduction Origin of Iron Meteorites Accretion of Iron Meteorite Parent Bodies Heating of the Parent Bodies Melting and Differentiation of Iron Meteorite Parent Bodies Core Crystallization Cooling of the Core and Formation of the Widmanstätten Structure Catastrophic Destruction of the Asteroid and the Core Hit and Run Collisions Collisional Erosion Catastrophic Collisions Orbital Transfer of the Core Fragments to Earth Crossing Orbit Fall on Earth Use of Iron Meteorites by Humans Chemical Classification of Iron Meteorites Structural Types of Iron Meteorites Connection to Asteroids Summary References Isotope Dilution Definition Elemental Concentration Determinations Mass Bias Control Summary Cross-References References K Kerogen Synonyms Definition Occurrence of Kerogen in the Geosphere Origin of Kerogen Analysis, Composition, and Kerogen Types Fate, Maturation, and Petroleum Generation Role of Kerogen in Carbon Cycling Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Kinetics of Geochemical Processes Definition Time Scales of Geochemical Processes Application of Chemical Kinetics to Heterogeneous Geomedia Rate Laws Determination of Reaction Order and Rate Constants/Coefficients Methods to Determine Chemical Kinetics in Geochemical Systems Summary Cross-References References Krypton History and Use General Geochemical Behaviour Uses in Geochemical Studies in Concert with Other Noble Gases Specific Applications of Krypton Isotope Geochemistry Groundwater Dating Cosmic Ray Exposure Dating of Meteorites Mantle Geochemistry: Source of Earth´s Volatiles Mantle Geochemistry: Origin of the Atmosphere Solar System Studies Summary Cross-References References L Laboratory Simulations of Organic Geochemical Processes at Elevated Temperatures Definition Introduction Oil and Natural Gas Formation Role of Water and Other Inorganic Species Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Lanthanide Rare Earths Definition General Geochemistry Eu and Ce Redox Geochemistry Normalization of Rare Earth Element Abundances Isotope Geochemistry Involving Lanthanides Mineralogy Sources and Uses of Lanthanides Summary Cross-References References Lanthanum Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Geochronology Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Large-Ion Lithophile Elements Definition Origin of the Term and LILE Geochemistry Summary Cross-References References Laser Ablation - Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry Definition Introduction Multi-Element Determinations Quantification Protocol In Situ Isotope Ratio Measurements In Situ Dating Imaging Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Lead Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References USA Today Lead Isotopes Introduction Pb Isotope Ratio Determinations Geochronology The 238U-206Pb, 235U-207Pb, and 232Th-208Pb decay systems Uranium- and Thorium-rich ystems Uranium-poor Systems Dating of Ancient Rocks Dating of Meteorites Crust-Mantle Evolution Lead Isotope Applications Oceanic Basalts, Implications for Mantle Evolution Continental Crust Growth, Episodic or Recycling Environmental Applications Tracing Pb Pollution Seawater Summary Cross-References References Lipids (Bacteria and Archaea) Definition Introduction Lipid Structural Classes Selected Applications in Geosciences Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments References Lithium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Lithium Isotopes Definition Introduction Natural Waters Mafic Rocks and the Mantle Sediments, Metamorphic Rocks and the Continents Subduction Cycling of the Li Isotopes Conclusions Cross-References References Lithophile Elements Definition The Goldschmidt Classification of the Elements Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Low-Temperature Geochemistry Synonyms Definition Introduction to Low-Temperature Geochemistry History and Basic Principles Major Topics in Low-Temperature Geochemistry Mineral Precipitation/Crystallization and Chemical Weathering Sedimentary Processes and Diagenesis Chemistry of Soils Biogeochemical Cycling Contaminant Transport Summary Cross-References References Luminescence Definition Basics of Luminescence Luminescence in Minerals Luminescence Zoning Luminescence Spectroscopy Luminescence Dating Summary References Lutetium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References M Magmatic Process Modeling Synonyms Definition Introduction Techniques Used for Modeling Magmatic Processes Why Phase Equilibrium Experiments Are Not Enough Why Thermodynamic Models of Phase Equilibria Provide Important Constraints on Magmatic Process Modeling Assimilation Processes Manifesto Conclusions and What About Kinetics Appendix: From Experiment to Model Cross-References Acknowledgments References Magnesium Properties History and Use Natural Distribution Geochemical Behaviors Summary Cross-References References Magnesium Isotopes Introduction Magnesium Isotopic Distribution in Major Reservoirs Chondrite, Achondrite, and the Moon The Earth´s Mantle The Continental Crust The Hydrosphere Behaviors of Magnesium Isotopes During Major Geological Processes Continental Weathering Biological Processes Partial Melting and Magmatic Differentiation Metamorphic Dehydration High-Temperature Equilibrium and Kinetic Isotope Fractionation Applications of Magnesium Isotope Geochemistry Summary Cross-References References Magnetism Definition Introduction Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism Antiferromagnetism Ferrimagnetism Magnetic Minerals of Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Rocks Remanent Magnetization and the Paleomagnetism Summary Cross-References References Manganese Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Mantle Geochemistry Definition Basic Facts About Earth´s Mantle Mantle Convection, Plate Tectonics, and Volcanism Mantle Geodynamics Probing Earth´s Mantle Chemical Geodynamics Processes that Generate Mantle Heterogeneity The Scale of Mantle Heterogeneity Synthesis Remaining Questions Cross-References References Marine Sediment Definition Introduction The Prevalence of Authigenic Components in All Sediment Aluminosilicates The Ubiquitous Presence of Volcanic Ash Eolian Transport and Deposition of Terrigenous Dust Other Transport Mechanisms of Lithogenic Material Identifying Aluminosilicate Sediment Provenance Biogenic Sediment Calcareous Deposits Siliceous Deposits Biogenic Apatite Organic Material and Redox-Sensitive Elements Metalliferous Sediment Minor Metal Contributions from Cosmic Dust Summary Cross-References References Mass Transfer Definition Diffusive Flux Advective Flux Chemical Reactions Mass Conservation Applications Summary References Mercury Properties History and Use Isotopes and Cosmochemistry Mineralogy and Geochemistry Aqueous Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References Bibliography Mercury Isotopes Introduction Methods and Nomenclature Mechanisms of Hg Isotope Fractionation Hg MIF Cycles Select Applications Tracing Isotopically Distinct Pools of Hg in Sediments and Surface Waters Source Tracing in Atmospheric Samples Tracing What Pools of Hg Are Bioaccumulated in the Food Web Understanding Depositional Patterns of Hg to Soils Past Proxy of Volcanic Hg Summary Cross-References References Metamorphic Reactions and Processes Definition Introduction Metamorphic Environments A Conceptual Model for Regional Metamorphism A Model System for Metamorphic Phase Equilibria Quantitative Thermodynamic Modeling: Equations of State Quantitative Thermodynamic Modeling: Calculating Multiphase Equilibria Forward Modeling of Metamorphic Phase Equilibria: Grids and Pseudosections Forward Modeling of Metamorphic Phase Equilibria: Thermobarometry Alternative Thermodynamic Systems Phase Equilibrium and Deformation Metamorphic Processes in the Wider Geological Context Summary Cross-References References Meteorites Definition Types of Meteorites Chondrites Components of Chondrites Achondrites Irons Martian Meteorites Lunar Meteorites Deciphering the Meteorite Record Summary References Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts (MORB) Definition Introduction MORB as a Product of Pressure Release Melting Average MORB Compositions Major Elements and Mineralogy Trace Elements Radiogenic Isotopes Outstanding Problems Summary Cross-References References Mineral Defects Definition Classification of Defects Radiation Damage in Minerals From Self-irradiation Radiometric Dating Fission Tracks in Minerals Summary Cross-References References Mineral Genesis Definition The Crystalline Earth and Its Dynamics Departure from Equilibrium for Mineral Birth and Growth Nucleation of Minerals Primary Nucleation and Secondary Nucleation Crystal Growth of Unique Mineral Grains Growth Mechanisms of Individual Faces Growth Events and Mineral Habit Changes Resorption of Unique Mineral Grains Growth and Sector Zonings Collective Behavior of Growing Minerals Conclusions Cross-References References Mineralogy Definition Introduction History Mineral Types, Numbers, and Classification Present and Future Challenges in the Mineralogical Sciences Conclusion Cross-References References Molybdenum Properties History and Use Molybdenum Geochemistry Biological Utilization and Toxicity A Powerful Paleo-Redox Proxy Summary Cross-References References Molybdenum Isotopes Introduction Analytical Methods Natural Mass Dependent Fractionation Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References N Native Minerals Synonyms Definition Classification Summary Cross-References References Natural Gas Definitions Origin Occurrences Energy Resource Summary Cross-References References Neodymium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Neodymium Isotopes Introduction Nd Isotope Ratio Determinations The Sm-Nd Decay System The Nd Isotopic Evolution of the Earth and the CHUR Reservoir epsi Notation Time-Integrated Sm/Nd Ratios of Terrestrial Reservoirs and Model Ages The Sm-Nd System Seawater Summary Cross-References References Neon Properties History and Use Summary Cross-References References Neon Isotopes Definition Introduction The Primordial Composition: The Solar Neon Reactions Producing Neon Isotopes in Solids Neon in Chondrites: The Neon Alphabet Solar-Like Neon in the Earth´s Mantle Atmospheric Neon: Late Veneer or Atmospheric Loss? Summary Cross-References References Neutron Activation Analysis Definition Principle Procedure Errors In Analysis Detection Limits Summary Cross-References References Nickel Properties History and Use Ores and Production Geochemistry Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Niobium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Nitrogen Properties Cross-References References Nitrogen Cycle Definition Pools in the Nitrogen Cycle Overview of Nitrogen Cycle Fluxes in the Nitrogen Cycle Coupling of Fluxes and Flux Balances Anthropogenic Alterations to the Nitrogen Cycle Summary Cross-References References Nitrogen Isotopes Introduction Nitrogen Stable and Unstable Isotopes Analytical Techniques Cosmochemistry Atmospheric Nitrogen Species and Deposits Paleoenvironment and Paleo-Ecosystem Reconstruction Postdepositional Modifications of Sedimentary N Isotope Composition Selected Applications of N Isotopes to the Sedimentary Record Nitrogen Chemical Geodynamics The Neglected Role of Abiotic Reactions ``You Are What You Eat´´: Paleo-Diet and Archeological Investigations Forensics Science with a Focus on Nitrate Pollution Conclusion Cross-References References Noble Gases Definition Introduction: History and Uses Cosmochemistry Mantle Geochemistry Earth´s Atmosphere Ice, Oceans, and Crustal Fluids Geochronology Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Synonyms Definition Governing Physics The NMR Experiment Instrument Design The Bloch Equations Application to Geochemistry Conclusion Cross-References References Nucleosynthesis Definition Origin and Abundances of the Elements Formation of the First Nuclides Synthesis of Nuclides in Stellar Interior Primordial Nucleosynthesis Cosmic Ray Spallation Stellar Nucleosynthesis Hydrogen Burning Helium Burning Carbon and Oxygen Burning Silicon Burning and the ``e´´ (Equilibrium) Process Explosive Nucleosynthesis Elements Beyond the Iron Group r-Process s-Process p-Process Summary Cross-References References Nutrients Synonyms Definition Introduction Nutrient Limitation Nutrient Proxies Summary Cross-References References O Ocean Biochemical Cycling and Trace Elements Definition Introduction Ocean Biological Cycle Requires Bio-essential Elements Other Chemical Elements with a Biological Role Brief Outline of Marine Ecosystem Cycling of Elements Major Nutrient Elements: Nitrate, Phosphate, and Silicate Trace Nutrient Elements Iron Limitation of High-Nutrient Low-Chlorophyll (HNLC) Regions An Update on the Extended Redfield Stoichiometry Other Trace Elements Summary Cross-References References Ocean Salinity, Major Elements, and Thermohaline Circulation Definition Introduction Major Ions in Seawater and Salinity Residence Times and Mass Balance Circulation of Deep Ocean Waters Summary Cross-References References Oceanic Island Basalts Definitions OIB, Hotspots, and Mantle Plumes Geochemistry and Crustal Recycling Primordial Signature from the Deep Mantle Summary Cross-References References Oil Seeps and Coastal Bitumen Definitions Introduction Seep Locations Methods of Detection and Sampling Origin of Australian Coastal Bitumens Impact on Local Ecosystems Conclusions Cross-References References Oil Shale Synonyms Definition Introduction Properties History and Use Summary Cross-References References Oil-Oil and Oil-Source Rock Correlations Definition Oil-Source Rock Correlation Oil-Oil Correlation Cross-References References Oklo Natural Nuclear Reactors Synonyms Definition Discovery of the Natural Nuclear Reactors Conditions for the Formation of Natural Reactors Chemical, Physical, and Geologic Properties of the Natural Reactors Conditions During Natural Reactor Operation Scientific Relevance of the Oklo Natural Fission Reactors Summary Cross-References References Onuma Diagrams Definition History Cross-References References Ore Deposits Synonyms Definition Classifications Magmatogenic Ore Deposits Supergene Ore Deposits Synsedimentary Ore Deposits Diagenetic-hydrothermal Ore Deposits Metamorphogenic-hydrothermal Ore Deposits Mine Life Cycle The Environment and Public Acceptance Sustainable Mining Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Organic Facies Definition Introduction Kerogen Organic Facies Organic Facies and Sequence Stratigraphy Organic Facies Variations in the Woodford Shale, Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma Summary Cross-References References Organic Geochemistry Definition Introduction Analytical Techniques The Biomarker Concept Biomarkers for Vascular Plants Biomarkers for Microalgae Biomarkers for Bacteria Biomarkers for Archaea Organic Geochemistry of Modern Environments Early Stage Diagenesis Stable Isotope Geochemistry Atmospheric Chemistry Molecular Archaeology Paleoenvironmental Assessment Proxies for Paleotemperature Changes Petroleum Geochemistry Organic Matter in Space Summary and Future Prospects Cross-References References Organic Matter Degradation and Preservation Definition Global Importance OM Degradation and Preservation in the Earth System The Process of OM Degradation and Preservation OM Composition Microbes and Terminal Electron Acceptors Controls on OM Degradation and Preservation Quantity Control Quality Control OM Composition Microbial Community Structure Thermodynamics Physical Protection Temperature Transport Processes Summary Cross-References References Organic Matter in Fossils Definition Introduction Sources and Post Burial Processes Analytical Methods Complex Organic Biomolecules Summary Cross-References References Organics: Sources and Depositional Environments Synonyms Definition Introduction Composition of Detrital Organic Matter Determining Sources of Organic Matter Transformation of Organic Matter Across the Terrestrial-Ocean Transition Fate of Organic Matter: The Ocean Summary Cross-References References Osmium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Cosmochemistry Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Osmium Isotopes Definition Introduction Overview of the Geochemistry of Re and Os Measurement of the System Geochronologic Applications Cosmochemical Applications The Re-Os System in the Earth´s Mantle The Re-Os System in the Earth´s Crust and Hydrosphere Summary Cross-References References Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and E-pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams Synonyms Definition The Hydrogen Electrode and the Table of Thermodynamic Values The Nernst Expression The Pe Scale Electron-Exchange Reactions that Also Involve Proton Exchanges Pourbaix (eh-pH) Diagrams The Perils of E as a Master Variable The Practical use of Redox Potential Summary Cross-References References Oxide Minerals Synonyms Definition Mineralogy Physical and Chemical Properties Occurrence Applications and Economic Significance Summary Cross-References References Oxygen Properties History Stellar Origins Cosmochemical Significance Applications of Oxygen Isotopes in Geochemistry Oxygen in the Atmosphere Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Oxygen Isotopes Definition Introduction Nomenclature of Oxygen Isotope Ratios and Standardization of delta-Values Analytical Methods Mass-Dependent Fractionation Relations and Geothermometers Oxygen Isotope Distribution of the Galaxy and the Solar System Oxygen Isotope Distribution of the Earth Summary Cross-References References Ozone and Stratospheric Chemistry Definition Ozone Stratospheric Chemistry Ozone Historical Perspectives and Background Chapman Cycle: Ozone Chemistry in a Pure Oxygen Atmosphere Global Stratospheric Ozone Chemistry Polar Ozone Past and Future Evolution of Ozone at Global Scale Stratospheric Sulfur Chemistry Sulfur Life Cycle Conversion of Reduced Sulfur Gases into Sulfate Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions Geo-Engineering Conclusions Cross-References References P Paleoclimatology Definition Climate Proxies The Climate System and Timescales of Change Cenozoic Climate History Summary Cross-References References Paleoenvironments Definition Introduction Complicating Factors Recent Developments Summary References Paleoproductivity Definition Proxies Organism Assemblages Stable Isotopes Trace Elements Reconstructions Summary Cross-References References Paleotemperatures Definition Assemblages of Planktonic Foraminifera Mg/Ca Ratios Oxygen Isotopic Composition of Foraminifera Clumped Isotopes in Carbonates Biomarker Proxies: Alkenones and TEX Sr/Ca Ratios in Corals Terrestrial Temperature Proxies Conclusions Cross-References References Palladium Definition History and Uses Elemental and Physical Properties Geochemical Behavior and Reservoir Abundance Summary Cross-References References Paragenesis Definition History Paragenesis of Stellar and Nebular Rocks Paragenesis of Planetary Bodies Paragenetic Models Bowen´s Reaction Series Emmons´ Zoning Model Determination of Paragenetic Sequences in Ore Deposits Example Paragenetic Diagram Paragenetic Research Using Fluid Inclusions Summary Cross-References References Partial Melting Synonyms Definition Mechanisms of Partial Melting Decompression Melting Flux Melting Heating by Conduction Summary Cross-References References Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE) Definition Analytical Features Quantitative Analysis Future Work Cross-References References Partitioning and Partition Coefficients Definition History and Use Thermodynamic Basis Mineral-Melt Systems The Lattice Strain Model The Electrostatic Model Metal-Silicate Systems Sulfide-Silicate Systems Mineral-Melt Partition Coefficients Olivine Pyroxene Garnet Plagioclase Amphibole Metal-Silicate Partition Coefficients Sulfide-Silicate Partition Coefficients Summary Cross-References References Peat Definition Peat Formation, Peatlands, and Peatland Classification Significance Summary Cross-References References Periodic Table Synonyms Introduction and Definition History Guide to the Periodic Table Periodicity Elemental Abundances Geochemical Affinity and Periodicity Conclusions Additional Resources Cross-References References Petroleum Definition History Distribution of Petroleum Reserves Petroleum Composition Origin Petroleum Migration Interactions with Mineral Diagenesis Petroleum in the Global Carbon Cycle Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments References Phase Equilibria Definition Introduction Definitions System Component (c) Phase (p) State Variable Variance or Degrees of Freedom (f) Gibbs Phase Rule Homogeneous Phase Equilibria Heterogeneous Phase Equilibria One-Component Systems Free Energy Diagrams in One-Component Systems Two-Component (Binary) Systems Free Energy Diagrams in Two-Component Systems Three-Component (Ternary) Systems Free Energy Diagrams in Three-Component Systems Systems with Four or More Components The Arrangement of Univariant Curves About an Invariant Point Terminology Rule 1 (The Fundamental Postulate) Rule 2 Rule 3 Use of Schreinemakers´ Analysis in Arranging Univariant Curves Application of Schreinemakers´ Analysis to One-Component Systems Application of Schreinemakers´ Analysis to Binary Systems Applications of Schreinemakers´ Analysis to Ternary Systems Calculation of Phase Equilibria Summary References Phosphorus Properties, Origin, and Behavior History and Use Geochemistry and Occurrence Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Platinum Definition History and Uses Elemental and Physical Properties Geochemical Behavior and Reservoir Abundance Summary Cross-References References Platinum Group Elements Definition Introduction PGE Abundances in the Bulk Silicate Earth PGE-Based Chronometry PGE Measurements PGE Mineral Deposits Health Aspects of the PGE Environmental Aspects of the PGE Summary Cross-References References Poisson-Boltzmann Equation Definition Essential Concepts Applications Summary Cross-References References Polonium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Polyoxometalates and Other Metal-Oxo Clusters in Nature Definition Synthesis and Structure of POMs in the Laboratory Importance of Metal-Oxo Clusters in Metal Oxide Dissolution and Precipitation in Nature Iron Oxides Aluminum Oxides Polyoxometalates and Other Clusters Found in Nature Summary References Porphyrins Definition Introduction Geoporphyrin Precursors: Biological Pigments Geoporphyrins Geoporphyrin/Petroporphyrin Varieties Metallo-Geoporphyrins Precursor-Product Considerations: Diagenesis and the ETIO Dilemma Geoporphyrins as Diagenetic/Catagenetic (Organic Maturation) Indicators The ETIO Dilemma: Is D Converted to E, is D Destroyed faster than E, or do both Occur? Summary Cross-References References Potassium Properties History and Use Chemistry/Geochemical Behavior Geological Importance Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Praseodymium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Precambrian Geochemistry Definition The Hadean Solid Earth Evolution in the Precambrian Surface Environmental Evolution in the Precambrian Summary and Conclusions References Precambrian Organic Matter Definition Historical Perspective Prevalence and Preservation Kerogen Carbon Cycle Reconstruction Morphologically Complex Organic Matter Bitumen: Solvent-Soluble Organic Matter Future Potential Cross-References References Presolar Grains Definition Introduction Carbonaceous Presolar Grains Oxygen-Rich Presolar Grains Summary Cross-References References Programmed Temperature Pyrolysis Definition Introduction Quality, Quantity, and Thermal Maturity of Rock Samples Petroleum Generation Kinetics for Rock Samples Methods Rock-Eval Pyrolysis Kinetic Measurements Interpreting Rock-Eval Pyrograms Historical Development of Rock-Eval Pyroanalyzers Data Interpretation Using Geochemical Logs Extrapolation of Kinetic Measurements to Geologic Time Summary Cross-References References Promethium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Protactinium Properties History and Use Natural Occurrence Measurement and Applications Isolation and Measurement Applications High-Temperature Igneous Processes Low-Temperature Paleoceanography Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Q Quantum Numbers Definition Overview Particle in a Box Harmonic Oscillator Rigid Rotor Atoms Conclusions Cross-References References R Radioactivity Definition The Radioactive Decay Law Modes of Decay Beta Decay Alpha Decay Fission Decay Determination of Decay Constants Sources of Radioactive Isotopes Measurement Methods for Radiation and Radioactive Isotope Concentrations Radioactivity Exposure and Hazards Cross-References References Radium Properties History and Use Radium Geochemistry Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Radon Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Raman Microspectroscopy Synonyms Definition Basic Principles and History Instrumentation Sample Preparation, Measurement, and Data Analysis Selected Advantages and Disadvantages of Raman Microspectroscopy Selected Earth Science Applications of Raman Microspectroscopy Additional Raman Spectroscopic Techniques Summary Cross-References References Refractory Inclusions in Chondritic Meteorites Definition Classification of Refractory Inclusions Bulk Chemical Compositions of Refractory Inclusions Formation Age of Refractory Inclusions Short-Lived Radionuclides in Refractory Inclusions Nucleosynthetic Isotopic Anomalies in Refractory Inclusions Oxygen Isotopic Compositions of Refractory Inclusions Radial Transport and Residence Time of Refractory Inclusions in the Protoplanetary Disk Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Rhenium Definition History and Uses Elemental and Physical Properties Geochemical Behavior and Reservoir Abundance Re-Os Isotopic System Economic Geology Summary Cross-References References Rhodium Properties History and Use Natural Occurrence Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Rubidium Properties History Minerals Geochemistry Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Ruthenium Properties History and Use Physical, Chemical, and Geochemical Properties Natural Occurrence Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References S Samarium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Scandium Properties History and Use Natural Abundances Scandium Mineralogy Aqueous Geochemistry Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Selenium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity References Siderophile Elements Definition Properties of the Siderophile Elements Cross-References References Silicate Melts Synonyms Definition The Discovery of Silicate Melts The Peculiarity of Liquids The Silica Paradox Summary Cross-References References Silicate Minerals Definition Classification Atomic Coordination Chemical and Physical Properties Summary References Silicon Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity References Silicon Isotopes Definition Introduction Low Temperature High Temperature Summary Cross-References References Silver Properties History and Use Abundance Geochemical Behavior Silver Minerals Ore Deposits Application to Cosmochemistry Toxicity Cross-References References Sodium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior and Distribution Na in Magmatic Processes Na in Fluid-Rock Interactions Joly´s Sodium Age of the Earth Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Soils Definition Introduction Soil Development Soils and Civilizations Soil Biota Soil Organic Matter Fire and Soil Soil Erosion Soil Contamination Future Soil Management Summary Cross-References References Solid Solution/Exsolution Definition Introduction Mixing Properties of Substitutional Solid Solutions Temperature-Composition Phase Diagram Thermodynamic Equilibrium Exsolution Process Solid Solutions Formed by Precipitation from a Supersaturated Aqueous Fluid Thermodynamic Equilibrium Stoichiometric Saturation State Out-of-Equilibrium Processes Summary Cross-References References Solubility Definition Introduction Thermodynamics of Solubility Examples of Solubility Gases in Water Gases in Melts Solids in Liquids Solids in Gases Summary Cross-References References Stable Isotope Geochemistry Definition Introduction Terminology Causes of Isotope Fractionations Mass Dependent Verses Mass Independent Fractionations Isotope Clumping Applications Summary and Outlook Cross-References References Standard States Definition Elaboration Conclusions Cross-References References Stoichiometry Definition Strontium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Strontium Isotopes Definition Introduction to Rb-Sr Systematics Strontium Isotope Analyses Radiogenic Sr Isotopes in Early Solar System Material and Bulk Silicate Earth Radiogenic Sr Isotopes in the Crust-Mantle System Stable Sr Isotopes in Geochemistry Radiogenic Sr Isotopes in Surface and Ocean Water Sr Isotopes in Forensic Sciences Cross-References References Subduction Zone Geochemistry Definition Introduction Input Materials On the Way Down One Man´s Trash Is Another Man´s Or, What Goes Down Must Come Up Building Volcanoes and Continents Timescales of Subduction Geochemistry Mass Balances Across the Subduction Zone Summary and Conclusions References Sulfate Minerals Definition Introduction Examples Economic and Environmental Importance Summary Cross-References References Sulfide Minerals Synonyms Definition Introduction Sulfide Ore Deposits Sulfide Minerals in Biogeochemical Systems Sulfide Minerals and the Global Sulfur Cycle Extraterrestrial Sulfide Minerals Summary References Sulfur Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Sulfur Cycle Definition The Major Sulfur Reservoirs on Earth The Modern Natural Global Sulfur Cycle Sulfur Cycle Through the Earth´s History Anthropogenic Influence on the Sulfur Cycle Conclusions References Sulfur Isotopes Introduction Notation Standards Methods of Measurement Geochemical Records Summary Cross-References References Supergene Definition Supergene Processes and Enrichment Summary Cross-References References Surface Geochemistry Synonyms Definition Introduction The Gibbs-Thompson Equation Adsorption/Desorption at Hydrolyzed Surfaces Organic Molecules and Aqueous Surface Films Surface Catalysis The Future Cross-References References Synchrotron X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis Definition Introduction Early Stages Synchrotron-XRF Instrumentation and Analysis Conclusion and Perspectives Cross-References References T Tantalum Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Technetium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Tellurium Properties History and Use Geochemical Abundances and Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Terbium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Thallium Introduction Thallium in the Earth´s Crust Thallium Behavior During Weathering Anthropogenic Thallium and Toxicity Summary Cross-References Acknowledgments References Thallium Isotopes Definition Historical Context Thallium Isotope Measurements Applications of Thallium Isotopes Evidence for Pb in Meteorites Studies of Tl Isotopes in Fe-Mn Crusts Calculation of Hyrothermal Fluid Fluxes Using Tl Isotopes in the Ocean Crust Thallium Isotopes as a Tracer for Ocean Crust Recycling in the Mantle Causes of Thallium Isotope Fractionation Summary References Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry Definition Introduction Ion Source and Mass Analyzer Detectors Mass Fractionation Summary Cross-References References Thermogravimetry Synonyms Definition Background Methodology Instrumentation Applications in Geochemistry Summary Cross-References References Thorium Properties History and Use Isotopes and Applications Chemistry Ores and Distribution in Rocks High-Temperature Geochemistry Low-Temperature Geochemistry Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Thulium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Tin Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Tin Isotopes Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Titanium Properties History and Use Geochemistry Titanium Solubility in Fluids, Melts, and Minerals Using Ti in Zircon and Quartz to Determine Crystallization Pressure and Temperature Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Trace Elements Definition Which Elements Are Trace Elements? Geochemical and Biochemical Importance of Trace Elements Concentration Units Cross-References References Transition Elements Definition Abundance and Distribution Behavior Valence State and Crystal Chemistry Crystal-Melt Partitioning High-Low Spin Transition in Fe Hydrothermal Fluids References Tungsten Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Tungsten Isotopes Introduction Origin of W Isotope Variations The Hf-W System W Compositions of Meteorites and Terrestrial Planets Rapid Accretion of Protoplanets Timescales for Mantle Differentiation Accretion Timescales for the Earth, Moon, and Mars Summary References U Unified Atomic Mass Unit, Avogadro Constant, and Mole Definition Unified Atomic Mass Unit Avogadro Constant and Mole Summary Cross-References References Uranium Properties History and Use Chemistry Isotopes and Applications Ores and Distribution in Rocks High-Temperature Geochemistry Low-Temperature Geochemistry Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Uranium Decay Series Definition Basic Principles in U-Series Geochemistry U-U Dating Dating Based on Th-U and Pa-U Disequilibrium Dating Magmatic Event and Magma Storage Tracing Mantle Melting and Melt Migration U-Series as Tracer of Water-Rock Interaction Applications in the Field of Oceanography Summary Cross-References References V Van der Waals Force Synonyms Definition Description Summary Cross-References References Vanadium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Volcanic Gases Definition Scientific Interests Chemical and Isotopic Composition Techniques for Volcanic Gas Measurements and Volcano Monitoring Summary Cross-References References Volcanism Definition Introduction Volcanism and Plate Tectonics Magma Evolution and Volcanic Eruptions Volcanism for Geochemistry Geochemistry for Volcanology and Petrology Conclusions Cross-References References W Water Properties of Water Structure of Water Phase Behavior of Water The Hydrologic Cycle Water in the Lithosphere Water in the Atmosphere Cross-References References X Xenon Properties Physical Properties Chemical Properties Biological Properties History and Xenon Applications in Earth Science Research Summary Cross-References References Xenon Isotopes Definition Introduction Background and Prior Work Regassing of Mantle Xenon Preservation of Heterogeneities Created During Terrestrial Accretion Heterogeneous Volatile Accretion Loss of Xe from the Atmosphere During the Hadean and Archean Summary Cross-References References X-Ray Diffraction Definition Introduction to X-rays Principles of X-ray Diffraction Instrumentation Uses in Geochemistry Summary Cross-References References X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis Definition Introduction Principle of X-ray Fluorescence Analysis Recent Innovation in XRF Analysis Hand-Held XRF Analyzer Synchrotron Radiation Application Chemical State Analysis Conclusion Cross-References References Y Ytterbium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Yttrium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Cross-References References Z Zinc Properties History and Use Cosmochemistry Mineralogy Aqueous and Hydrothermal Geochemistry Biological Utilization Environmental Geochemistry and Toxicity Ore Deposits and Mineral Processing Summary Cross-References References Zinc Isotopes Introduction and Definitions Zinc in Igneous Rocks and Extraterrestrial Samples Zn Isotopes in Surface Environments Summary Cross-References References Zirconium Properties History and Use Geochemical Behavior Biological Utilization and Toxicity Summary Cross-References References Author Index Subject Index
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