Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine: 1-4

Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine vol 1......Page 1
The Nuremberg Tribunal......Page 0
Why Accredit the Certifiers?......Page 16
The Problem of Multiple Certification Boards......Page 17
Further Reading......Page 18
2.pdf......Page 19
3.pdf......Page 29
Odontological examination......Page 32
Greulich and Pyle method......Page 33
Other Factors......Page 34
Further Reading......Page 35
5.pdf......Page 37
6.pdf......Page 45
Gas Chromatography......Page 46
Biochemical Methods - Immunoassays......Page 47
Specimen Selection and Collection - Postmortem......Page 48
Blood and its Constituents......Page 49
Urine......Page 51
Summary......Page 52
Further Reading......Page 53
Reporting Blood Alcohol Concentrations......Page 54
Methods of Measuring Alcohol in Body Fluids......Page 56
Absorption of Alcohol......Page 58
Distribution of Alcohol......Page 59
Metabolism and Elimination of Alcohol......Page 60
Oxidative Metabolism......Page 61
Rate of Alcohol Disappearance from Blood......Page 62
Urine......Page 63
Breath......Page 65
Effects of Alcohol on the Body......Page 66
Tolerance......Page 67
Identifying Problem Drinkers......Page 69
Toxicity of Alcohol......Page 70
Postmortem Aspects......Page 71
Further Reading......Page 72
Classification of Allergies......Page 74
Allergic Asthma......Page 75
Occupational Allergies and Compensation......Page 76
Allergy to laboratory animals (ALA)......Page 77
Type I hypersensitivity reactions (anaphylaxis)......Page 79
Peanut Allergy......Page 80
Exercise and Allergy......Page 81
Further Reading......Page 82
Mammals......Page 84
Fish......Page 85
See Also......Page 86
Insects and Arachnids......Page 87
Marine Animals......Page 88
Birds......Page 89
Small Carnivores......Page 90
Large Carnivores......Page 91
Reptiles......Page 93
Further Reading......Page 94
Introduction......Page 95
Scope of the Field......Page 96
Anthropological Profile......Page 97
Age Estimation......Page 98
Sexual Dimorphism......Page 99
Ancestry......Page 100
Stature Estimation......Page 101
The Role of Forensic Anthropology in Mass Casualty......Page 102
Further Reading......Page 103
13.pdf......Page 105
Probes......Page 106
Trenching......Page 107
The Forensic Paradigm Shift......Page 108
Further Reading......Page 109
The Context: Ecological Perspectives......Page 110
Postmortem Interval and Condition of Remains......Page 111
Location of Sites of Deposition and Decomposition......Page 112
Reconstructing Postmortem Sequences......Page 113
Theoretical and Methodological Issues in Forensic Taphonomy......Page 114
Further Reading......Page 115
Methods for Estimating Stature from the Skeleton......Page 116
Developments before World War II......Page 117
Developments after World War II......Page 118
Further Reading......Page 120
Bone Pathology......Page 121
Abnormal Bone Loss......Page 122
Fracture......Page 124
Sharp-Force Trauma......Page 126
See Also......Page 127
Further Reading......Page 128
17.pdf......Page 129
Bones Commonly Found after Burning......Page 130
Determination of Sex......Page 131
Estimation Of Age......Page 132
Conclusion......Page 133
Further Reading......Page 134
Estimating Subadult Age......Page 135
Recent Developments in Age Estimation......Page 136
Further Reading......Page 138
Age......Page 139
Dental Age......Page 140
Skeletal Age......Page 141
Personal Identity......Page 142
Legal Procedures......Page 143
Further Reading......Page 144
Principles of Sex Determination......Page 145
Morphological Determination......Page 146
Morphological Examination......Page 147
Metrical Analysis......Page 149
Sex Determination from Other Bones of the Skeleton......Page 150
Further Reading......Page 151
Population Movement and Admixture......Page 153
Craniofacial Morphology......Page 154
The Forensic Data Bank......Page 156
Further Reading......Page 157
Previous Research......Page 158
Further Reading......Page 160
Ancient DNA......Page 161
Kinship Analysis......Page 162
Human Migrations......Page 163
Contamination, Interpretation Difficulties and Validation of Results......Page 164
Further Reading......Page 165
Asphyxia with Confined and Enclosed Spaces......Page 166
Postmortem Investigation......Page 167
Survivors of Asphyxia......Page 168
Further Reading......Page 172
Psychological and Physiological Background......Page 173
Diagnostic Criteria......Page 174
Death Scene Features......Page 175
Fail-Safe Device......Page 178
Lethal Outcomes......Page 179
Further Reading......Page 180
External Postmortem Examination......Page 181
Clinical Autopsy......Page 182
Medicolegal Autopsy......Page 183
Autopsy Techniques......Page 184
See Also......Page 185
Further Reading......Page 186
Context and Purpose of Autopsies......Page 187
Role of the Pathologist......Page 188
Retention of Tissue Samples and Whole Organs for Diagnostic Purposes......Page 189
Conclusion......Page 190
Further Reading......Page 191
Body measurements......Page 192
Microscopic Examination......Page 193
Toxicology and Postmortem Chemistry Studies......Page 194
Metabolic Disorders......Page 195
Vitreous Fluid......Page 196
Trace Evidence......Page 197
Further Reading......Page 198
Handling and Preservation of Evidence......Page 199
External Examination......Page 200
Special Dissection Techniques......Page 204
Pelvic Dissection......Page 205
Further Reading......Page 206
HIV and Forensic Autopsy......Page 208
Risk Reduction: Infection Control......Page 210
Postexposure Management......Page 211
Further Reading......Page 212
Overview......Page 213
Drug-Specific Considerations......Page 214
Postmortem Examination......Page 215
Postmortem Toxicology......Page 216
Further Reading......Page 218
Bile and Urine......Page 219
Ethanol......Page 220
Drugs......Page 222
Postmortem Redistribution......Page 223
Drug Interactions......Page 224
Histologic Evidence of Drug Toxicity......Page 225
Further Reading......Page 226
Postmortem Drug Redistribution......Page 227
Stomach Contents......Page 229
Autopsy Sampling......Page 230
See Also......Page 231
Further Reading......Page 232
Nicotine and Related Alkaloids......Page 233
Ricin......Page 234
Animal-Based Toxins......Page 235
Further Reading......Page 236
Toxic Gases and Death from Smoke Inhalation......Page 237
Suicidal Deaths by Fire......Page 239
Identification of Fire Victims......Page 240
Autopsy Findings in Fire Victims......Page 241
Further Reading......Page 242
Pathophysiology of Drowning......Page 243
Bodies Recovered from Water......Page 244
Pathology of Drowning......Page 245
See Also......Page 247
37.pdf......Page 248
Autopsy Approach......Page 249
In All Cases......Page 254
Additional Steps to Usual Dissection and Organ Assessment......Page 255
Special Circumstances......Page 256
Further Reading......Page 257
Principles......Page 258
Organization of Mishap Investigation Boards......Page 259
Identification......Page 260
Forensic Procedures and Resources......Page 261
Injury Analysis and Reconstruction......Page 262
Patterned Injuries......Page 263
Preexisting Medical Conditions......Page 265
Scene Investigation......Page 266
Summary......Page 267
Further Reading......Page 268
Medication Use and Flight Performance......Page 269
Effects of Altitude, Pressurization, and Depressurization......Page 271
Vision in Flight......Page 272
Carbon Monoxide......Page 273
Further Reading......Page 274
Concentration-versus-time Curves and Backtracking Calculations......Page 276
Units of concentration and dose of alcohol......Page 277
Calculations......Page 278
Back-calculation......Page 279
Postaccident consumption of alcohol......Page 280
Allowance for alcohol eliminated due to metabolism......Page 281
Method of Forrest......Page 282
Method of Smith and Oliver (personal communication)......Page 283
Acetaminophen (paracetamol)......Page 284
Further Reading......Page 285
Shotgun......Page 286
Statistics......Page 287
Characteristics of Missile Movement......Page 289
Wounding Capacity of a Bullet......Page 291
Effects of Intermediary Obstructions......Page 292
Effects on Internal Tissues......Page 293
Firearm Discharge Residue......Page 294
Suicide by Firearm......Page 295
Embolism of Projectiles......Page 296
Further Reading......Page 297
RH System......Page 299
Kidd......Page 300
Standard Methods with Intact Blood......Page 301
Testing Other Body Fluid Stains for Blood Groups......Page 302
Further Reading......Page 303
Body Stuffer......Page 304
Specific Drugs......Page 305
Practical Aspects......Page 306
Further Reading......Page 307
Body Lifting and Moving......Page 308
Suspicious Deaths......Page 309
Suicides......Page 310
Decomposed Bodies......Page 311
Disaster Victim Identification......Page 312
Summary......Page 313
Further Reading......Page 314
Pathophysiology......Page 316
Clinical Findings......Page 317
Diagnosis and Investigation......Page 319
Further Reading......Page 320
Physiology......Page 321
Scene Investigation......Page 324
Fire......Page 325
Other......Page 327
Mechanism of Injury......Page 328
Lethal CO Levels......Page 329
Physical Findings......Page 330
Skin Blisters......Page 331
Neurological......Page 332
Further Reading......Page 333
Clinical Features and Treatment......Page 335
Oleum Capsicum......Page 336
Chlorobenzylidene Malononitrile and Chloracetophenone......Page 338
Further Reading......Page 340
Changes associated with puberty......Page 341
Development......Page 342
Motor Development......Page 343
Reflexes......Page 344
Gross motor development......Page 345
Piaget......Page 348
Measurement of Development......Page 352
Further Reading......Page 353
Brain Development in the Child......Page 354
Legal Consequences of the Research......Page 355
Legal Competency of the Child......Page 356
Further Reading......Page 358
Identifying the Cause......Page 359
Identifying the Timing of Injury......Page 364
Identifying the Perpetrator......Page 367
The Forensic Expert in Sexual Abuse Cases......Page 369
Further Reading......Page 372
The Emergence of Psychological Maltreatment as an Entity......Page 373
Australian Data......Page 374
Child Protection Legislation and the Categorization of Child Abuse......Page 375
A Framework for the Recognition and Definition of Psychological Maltreatment......Page 376
Further Reading......Page 378
Emotional, behavioral, and developmental history......Page 379
Radiologic Studies......Page 380
Traumatic alopecia and subgaleal hemorrhage......Page 381
Abusive brain injuries......Page 382
Shaken-baby syndrome......Page 383
Burns......Page 384
Rib fractures......Page 385
Complex skull fractures......Page 386
Further Reading......Page 387
Various Circumstances of Examination of Child Victims of Sexual Abuse......Page 388
Behavioral Indicators of Children Sexual Abuse......Page 389
Genital Examination......Page 390
Anal Examination......Page 391
Vaginal Examination......Page 392
Assessing the Diagnosis of Sexual Abuse of Children......Page 393
Further Reading......Page 394
Age Limit of Victims and Perpetrators......Page 395
Conclusion......Page 396
Further Reading......Page 397
Cardiomyopathies......Page 398
Outflow Obstruction......Page 399
Coronary Artery Anomalies......Page 400
Myocarditis......Page 401
Gastroenteritis......Page 402
Hematological Disorders......Page 403
Intestinal Obstruction......Page 404
Metabolic Conditions......Page 405
Conclusions......Page 406
Further Reading......Page 407
Drowning......Page 408
Thermal Deaths......Page 409
Sleeping Accidents......Page 410
Poisoning and Drug Toxicity......Page 411
Sports Deaths......Page 412
Further Reading......Page 413
Design, Conduct, and Review of RCT......Page 415
Ethical Dilemmas in Clinical Trials......Page 416
Ethics Committees......Page 418
Further Reading......Page 419
The Mentally Incapacitated......Page 420
Confidentiality......Page 422
Reviewing Committees or Boards......Page 423
Further Reading......Page 424
The National Crime and Operations Faculty......Page 425
Selection of Cases for Review......Page 426
Case History of Lynette White: A Cold-Case Review and Miscarriage of Justice......Page 427
Further Reading......Page 429
Definition......Page 430
Developmental Considerations......Page 431
Etiology......Page 432
Further Reading......Page 433
Pathophysiology......Page 434
Glasgow Coma Scale......Page 435
Investigations......Page 436
Persistent Vegetative State (PVS)......Page 437
See Also......Page 438
Further Reading......Page 439
The Independent Review Panel (IRP)......Page 441
The New Council......Page 442
Council for Healthcare Regulatory Excellence (CHRE)......Page 443
Further Reading......Page 444
Digital Crime Scene Investigation......Page 445
A Developing Forensic Discipline......Page 446
Digital Evidence......Page 447
Evaluation of Source and Class Characteristics......Page 449
Further Reading......Page 450
Development of Consent......Page 451
Information Imparted......Page 453
Conclusion......Page 455
Further Reading......Page 456
Doctrine of Necessity......Page 457
Incapacity......Page 458
See Also......Page 460
Further Reading......Page 461
The Under-16s......Page 462
Knowledge and the Sufficiency of Information......Page 463
Disclosure with Consent......Page 464
Audit, Teaching, and Research......Page 465
Further Reading......Page 466
Remains Found - Personal Recognition......Page 467
Scars......Page 468
Burial......Page 469
Further Reading......Page 470
Ijmaa’ (Consensus), Qiyas (Analogy), and Ijtihad (Informed Reasoning)......Page 472
The Sphere of Sharii’ah Law and Islamic Society......Page 473
Ta’zeer Crimes......Page 474
Judges in Sharii’ah......Page 475
Sharii’ah and the Sanctity of Honor, Privacy, and Human Dignity......Page 476
Conclusions......Page 477
Further Reading......Page 478
Withdrawal system......Page 479
Summary procedures of first instance......Page 480
Ordinary Procedure of First Instance......Page 481
Mediation......Page 482
Strengthening the Judge’s Independence......Page 483
Further Reading......Page 484
The Supreme Court......Page 485
From the Ancient to the Heian Era......Page 486
From the Kamakura Era to the Edo Era......Page 487
Under the Meiji Constitution......Page 488
Medical Examiner System in Japan......Page 489
Further Reading......Page 493
The Crown Court......Page 494
Civil Division of the Court of Appeal......Page 495
A Supreme Court......Page 496
Further Reading......Page 497
Constitutional Law......Page 498
United States Courts: Structure......Page 499
State Courts: Structure......Page 500
Further Reading......Page 501
Requirements before Writing a Statement......Page 503
What Should the Statement of a Doctor Ideally Contain?......Page 504
What Happens if This Initial Contact is Outside the Expertise of the Healthcare Professional?......Page 505
Preparing the Report......Page 506
What Happens When the Solicitor Seeks Comments on the Report from the Other Side?......Page 507
Procedure to be followed if a request for preparation of clinical negligence report is received......Page 508
Preparing the Report......Page 509
See Also......Page 510
Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine vol 2......Page 511
Composition of Latent Fingerprints - Friction Skin......Page 1057
Patterns of Fingerprints......Page 1058
Latent Prints......Page 1059
Ninhydrin......Page 1060
Sensing and Enhancement of Fingerprints......Page 1061
Matching......Page 1062
Further Reading......Page 1063
History......Page 1064
Methodology......Page 1065
United States v. Plaza (2002)......Page 1066
Modeling Uniqueness......Page 1067
Further Reading......Page 1068
Linear Axis Method......Page 1070
The Optical Center Method......Page 1071
Plantar Dermatoglyphics......Page 1072
Chiropody......Page 1073
Further Reading......Page 1074
Morphology of the Ear......Page 1075
Anatomical Ear Features and their Appearance......Page 1076
Peculiarities of the Ear......Page 1079
The Area around the Ear......Page 1080
Recovery and Lifting of Earprints......Page 1081
Obtaining Earprints from Suspects......Page 1082
Probable opinion......Page 1083
Further Reading......Page 1084
Facial Restoration......Page 1085
Recognition and Identification......Page 1087
Further Reading......Page 1090
The Nature of Light......Page 1091
Taking Pictures......Page 1092
Composition......Page 1094
Projection......Page 1097
Summary and Conclusions......Page 1100
Further Reading......Page 1101
History......Page 1102
Identification......Page 1103
Postmortem Artifacts Created by Scavengers......Page 1107
Mass Casualties......Page 1108
Documentation of Injury......Page 1109
Bombings......Page 1110
Nonaccidental Injury......Page 1111
Summary......Page 1112
Further Reading......Page 1113
Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 1114
The Swiss Virtual Autopsy Project (VIRTOPSY)......Page 1115
Forensic Application of Radiological Microimaging: Virtual Histology......Page 1116
Outlook......Page 1117
Further Reading......Page 1118
Diaphyseal Fractures......Page 1120
Metaphyseal Fractures......Page 1121
Costochondral Junction Fractures......Page 1123
Skull Fractures......Page 1124
Differential Diagnosis......Page 1125
Intracranial Injuries......Page 1127
Conclusions......Page 1128
Further Reading......Page 1129
Applications in Forensic Toxicology......Page 1130
FPIA......Page 1131
ELISA......Page 1132
Applications in Forensic Biology......Page 1133
Applications in Forensic Pathology......Page 1134
Further Reading......Page 1135
Examination and Documentation of Injury......Page 1136
Specific Factors......Page 1137
Other Issues for Nonforensic Healthcare Professionals......Page 1139
Further Reading......Page 1140
Anatomic Regionalization......Page 1141
Blunt Injuries to the Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues......Page 1142
Visceral Blunt Injuries......Page 1144
See Also......Page 1145
Further Reading......Page 1146
Mechanism of Injury......Page 1147
Electrical Burns......Page 1148
Radiation......Page 1149
Abuse......Page 1150
Other Situations......Page 1152
Further Reading......Page 1153
Explosive Injury......Page 1155
Flying-Missile Injury......Page 1156
Blast......Page 1157
Identification......Page 1159
Cause of Death......Page 1161
Retrieval of Forensic Evidence......Page 1162
Under-Car Booby-Trap Device......Page 1163
Firebombs......Page 1164
Pipe Bombs......Page 1165
Further Reading......Page 1166
Distant gunshot wound......Page 1167
Intermediate-range gunshot wound......Page 1168
Contact gunshot wounds......Page 1169
Exit gunshot wounds......Page 1170
Determining the direction of fire......Page 1171
Distant shotgun wounds......Page 1172
Contact shotgun wounds......Page 1173
Further Reading......Page 1174
Wound Characteristics......Page 1175
Incised Wounds......Page 1176
Neck......Page 1178
Stab Wounds......Page 1179
Characteristics of Surface Wounds......Page 1180
Outcome of Injury......Page 1182
Defense Wounds......Page 1183
Summary......Page 1184
Further Reading......Page 1185
Epidemiology......Page 1186
Vessel and Accident Types......Page 1187
Direct Biological and Other Indirect Effects......Page 1188
Study Design and Methodological Issues......Page 1189
Cause of Death and Medicolegal Investigation......Page 1190
See Also......Page 1191
Accident Statistics......Page 1192
Causes of Accidents......Page 1193
Forensic Autopsy......Page 1194
Case 1......Page 1195
Further Reading......Page 1196
Forces Involved in Accidents......Page 1197
Injuries to Pedestrians......Page 1198
Internal Findings......Page 1199
Further Reading......Page 1200
Disasters with Primary Impact Toward the Ground......Page 1201
Airplane Types......Page 1202
Case study......Page 1203
Injuries in Mid-Air Disasters......Page 1204
Diseases......Page 1205
A Mid-Air Accident......Page 1206
A Glider Accident......Page 1209
Further Reading......Page 1211
Assessment of the Scene......Page 1212
Trace Evidence......Page 1213
The Living Victim......Page 1214
Examination of the Decedent......Page 1215
Summary......Page 1216
Further Reading......Page 1217
Organizational Structures......Page 1218
Situations Calling for SWAT Team Response......Page 1219
SWAT Team Firearms......Page 1220
Special Equipment - Less Lethal Weapons......Page 1221
Additional Equipment and Devices......Page 1222
Further Readings......Page 1223
Communication......Page 1224
Journals......Page 1225
Commercial......Page 1226
See Also......Page 1227
Other Online Databases......Page 1228
Food Toxicology......Page 1229
Drug Toxicity......Page 1230
Developmental and Reproductive Toxicity......Page 1231
Online Toxicology Journals......Page 1232
Online Toxicology News......Page 1234
Conclusion......Page 1236
Further Reading......Page 1237
Judicial Punishment in the Torah and in Contemporary Judaism......Page 1239
Other Crimes......Page 1240
Judicial Punishment in Christianity......Page 1241
Judicial Punishment in Sharii’ah and Islam......Page 1242
Premeditated or Intentional Murder......Page 1243
Capital Judicial Punishment in Contemporary Society......Page 1244
Conclusion......Page 1245
Further Reading......Page 1246
Introduction......Page 1247
Definition of Death in Religious Legal Systems......Page 1248
Taxonomy of Definitions......Page 1249
The Definition of Death in the USA......Page 1251
Further Reading......Page 1252
Mass Fatality Incidents (MFIs)......Page 1253
Notification......Page 1254
Recovery of Bodies......Page 1255
Triage......Page 1256
Identification......Page 1257
Delegation of Duties......Page 1258
Pathology Protocol......Page 1259
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD)......Page 1261
Further Reading......Page 1262
Staging Areas......Page 1264
Victim Treatment......Page 1265
Communications......Page 1266
Victim Identification......Page 1267
Further Reading......Page 1268
Fingerprints......Page 1269
Clothing and other artefacts......Page 1270
Further Reading......Page 1271
Spree Murder......Page 1272
Family mass murderers......Page 1273
Disgruntled employees......Page 1274
Anger/revenge - specific place target......Page 1275
Politically motivated mass murder......Page 1276
Amok and Mass Murder......Page 1277
Future Trends......Page 1278
Further Reading......Page 1279
The Italian School......Page 1280
Mass Poisoner Targeting Random Victims......Page 1281
The Scene of Mass Poisoning......Page 1284
Further Reading......Page 1285
Consequences of Recent Technologies......Page 1286
Controversies about Brain Death......Page 1287
The Diagnosis of Brain Death......Page 1288
The Present Situation......Page 1289
Further Reading......Page 1290
The Law of Negligence......Page 1291
Causation......Page 1292
Preventive Medicine......Page 1293
Further Reading......Page 1294
Further Reading......Page 1295
Preoperative Assessment......Page 1297
General......Page 1299
Maintenance......Page 1302
Recovery......Page 1304
Central blockade......Page 1305
Further Reading......Page 1306
Inpatient Care......Page 1308
Minimizing Risks......Page 1309
Further Reading......Page 1310
Colonic Disorders......Page 1311
Rectal Surgery......Page 1312
Further Reading......Page 1313
Commission......Page 1314
Foreign Bodies......Page 1315
Rhinology......Page 1316
Further Reading......Page 1317
Surgical Resection of Malignancy......Page 1318
Orthognathic Surgery......Page 1319
Facial Esthetic and Cosmetic Surgery......Page 1320
Further Reading......Page 1321
Rules and Regulations......Page 1322
Factors Leading to Claims......Page 1323
Further Reading......Page 1324
Central Venous Lines......Page 1326
Deep-vein thrombosis (DVT)......Page 1327
Record-Keeping in the Critically Ill......Page 1328
Further Reading......Page 1329
Iatrogenic Disorders in Neonatology......Page 1330
Malpractice in Neonatal Medicine......Page 1332
Further Reading......Page 1334
Communication and Consent......Page 1335
Withdrawal of Treatment......Page 1336
Case 2......Page 1337
Good Practice......Page 1338
Further Reading......Page 1339
Professional Conduct and Accountability......Page 1340
Malpractice: The Nurse and the Law......Page 1342
Further Reading......Page 1343
Treatment......Page 1344
Wrong Diagnosis......Page 1345
Further Reading......Page 1346
Surgical Removal of Teeth or Roots......Page 1347
Dental Implantology (Osseointegrated  Dental Implants)......Page 1348
See Also......Page 1349
Further Reading......Page 1350
Causes of Malpractice in Plastic and Cosmetic Surgery......Page 1351
The Genesis of Malpractice Claims in Plastic and Cosmetic Surgery......Page 1353
Issues Surrounding Consent and Basic Medical Legal Principles......Page 1354
Issues Surrounding the Use of the Internet and Computer-Generated Pictures......Page 1355
Further Reading......Page 1356
Gross Negligence Manslaughter......Page 1357
Malpractice and the Expert Witness......Page 1358
Further Reading......Page 1359
Negligent Psychotherapy......Page 1360
Injury to Third Parties......Page 1361
Further Reading......Page 1362
Confidentiality......Page 1364
Use of Test Results......Page 1365
Further Reading......Page 1366
Incorrect Diagnosis......Page 1367
Errors in Dose......Page 1368
Further Reading......Page 1369
Special Investigations......Page 1370
Further Reading......Page 1371
Vascular Claims in the UK......Page 1372
Treatments to Save Life or Limb......Page 1373
See Also......Page 1374
Negligence in General......Page 1375
The standard of care......Page 1376
Proof of the applicable standard of care......Page 1377
Proximate Causation......Page 1378
Further Reading......Page 1379
The Duty of Care - When the Duty of Care Applies......Page 1380
The Duty of Care - The Physician’s Duty to Exercise Reasonable Care......Page 1381
Duty of Care - Proof of the Physician’s Duty of Care......Page 1382
Further Reading......Page 1383
Multiple Defendants......Page 1384
Difficult Causation Problems......Page 1385
The Cardozo Test for Foreseeability......Page 1386
The Andrews Test for Foreseeability......Page 1387
Further Reading......Page 1388
Proof of Money Damages - Economic Damages......Page 1389
Proof of Money Damages - Noneconomic Damages......Page 1390
Proof of Money Damages - Punitive Damages......Page 1391
Further Reading......Page 1392
Errors Involving Mechanical Devices......Page 1393
Further Reading......Page 1394
Patient/Authorized Representative Access......Page 1396
Legal Obligations......Page 1397
Scientific Research......Page 1398
Breach of confidentiality......Page 1399
Emerging Trends in Medical Records......Page 1400
See Also......Page 1401
Further Reading......Page 1402
Altering, Appending, and Correcting Medical Records......Page 1403
Physician-Patient Privilege......Page 1404
Disclosure of Information to Employer......Page 1405
Other Legal Disclosures......Page 1406
The US Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)......Page 1407
Further Reading......Page 1408
Presentation......Page 1410
Diagnosis......Page 1411
Intervention......Page 1412
Further Reading......Page 1413
Assailants and Victims......Page 1414
Epidemiology......Page 1415
Reasons for Homicide-Suicide......Page 1416
Further Reading......Page 1417
Case Characteristics......Page 1419
Pathological Findings......Page 1420
Flotation Test......Page 1423
Cause of Death......Page 1424
Placental Examination......Page 1425
Further Reading......Page 1426
Do Police Officers have Different Occupational Health Needs from Other Employees?......Page 1427
Working Conditions of Police Officers......Page 1428
Physical Health......Page 1429
Injury......Page 1431
Organizational Stress......Page 1432
Rehabilitation and Return to Work......Page 1434
Further Reading......Page 1435
Percutaneous transmission......Page 1436
Airborne transmission......Page 1437
Risk management for percutaneous and airborne transmission......Page 1438
Exposure to Toxic and Radioactive Materials, Defibrillators, and Foreign Bodies......Page 1440
Psychological Effects......Page 1441
Further Reading......Page 1442
Radiology......Page 1445
The First Few Months of Postnatal Life......Page 1447
Later Development of the Deciduous Dentition......Page 1448
Mixed Dentition......Page 1449
Permanent Dentition......Page 1450
Further Reading......Page 1451
Current Techniques......Page 1452
Raymond John Carroll v. The Queen......Page 1453
Problems with Bite Mark Analysis in the Carroll and Lewis Cases......Page 1454
Admissibility of Bite Mark Evidence......Page 1455
Other Factors to be Considered......Page 1456
Three-Dimensional Imaging and Quantification of Bite Marks and Dentitions......Page 1458
Further Reading......Page 1459
Developing an Understanding of the Body......Page 1461
Presuming Consent or \"Opt-Out\" Systems......Page 1463
Improving the Efficiency of Existing Systems......Page 1464
Commercialization as an Alternative or Additional Means of Supplying Organs or Tissue......Page 1465
Conclusion......Page 1466
Further Reading......Page 1467
History......Page 1469
Specimen Collection......Page 1470
Selection of Genetic Loci......Page 1471
RBC Typing......Page 1472
HLA......Page 1474
RFLP......Page 1475
PCR......Page 1476
Mitochondrial DNA......Page 1477
Analysis......Page 1478
False Exclusions......Page 1479
Paternity Index......Page 1480
Probability of Paternity......Page 1481
Probability of Exclusion......Page 1482
Further Reading......Page 1483
Patterned Injury Definition......Page 1484
The Concept of Class-Specific and Individual Characteristics......Page 1485
Documentation of the Patterned Injury......Page 1486
Making the Injury-Instrument Comparison......Page 1487
Further Reading......Page 1490
Genetic Factors......Page 1491
Barbiturates......Page 1492
Ethanol......Page 1493
Opioids......Page 1495
Heroin......Page 1496
Cocaine......Page 1497
Amphetamine and methamphetamine......Page 1498
Marijuana......Page 1499
Dimethyltryptamine......Page 1500
Phencyclidine (phenylcyclhexyl, piperidine, and PCP)......Page 1501
Further Reading......Page 1502
Introduction......Page 1503
Poisoning Data Collection for Epidemiology......Page 1504
Acetaminophen Overdose......Page 1505
NSAID Overdose......Page 1506
Drugs of Abuse......Page 1507
Domestic and Industrial Chemicals......Page 1508
Pack-Size Restrictions......Page 1509
Monitoring Use of Drugs......Page 1510
Further Reading......Page 1511
Introduction......Page 1512
Chronological Sequel of Livor Mortis Formation......Page 1513
Greenish color of livores......Page 1515
Criminalistic Aspects......Page 1516
Rigor Mortis......Page 1517
Chronological Sequel of the Development and Disappearance of Rigor Mortis......Page 1518
Algor Mortis......Page 1520
Autolysis......Page 1521
Underlying Mechanisms of Putrefaction......Page 1522
Morphology of Putrefaction......Page 1523
Differential Diagnoses......Page 1524
Mummification......Page 1525
Skeletonization......Page 1526
Injuries due to handling, transportation, and storage of the body......Page 1527
External Changes of the Eye after Death......Page 1528
Criminalistic aspects......Page 1529
Animal Depredation......Page 1530
See Also......Page 1531
Further Reading......Page 1532
Disease, Death, and Electrolytes......Page 1533
Assessment of certain antemortem conditions or disorders......Page 1534
Vitreous humor (VH)......Page 1535
Blood......Page 1536
See Also......Page 1537
Further Reading......Page 1538
Rigor Mortis......Page 1540
Livor Mortis......Page 1541
Putrefaction......Page 1542
Mummification......Page 1543
Further Reading......Page 1544
Protecting and Providing Information......Page 1545
Further Reading......Page 1546
Voir Dire/Qualifications......Page 1547
Cross-Examination......Page 1548
How to Listen to Questions......Page 1549
See Also......Page 1550
Further Reading......Page 1551
Curricula......Page 1552
Definition......Page 1553
Training......Page 1554
See Also......Page 1555
Registration......Page 1556
Fitness-to-Practice Procedures......Page 1557
Health Procedures......Page 1558
Appraisal and Revalidation......Page 1559
Further Reading......Page 1560
International Association of Forensic Sciences......Page 1561
Interpol Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) Committee......Page 1562
See Also......Page 1563
First Criminal Trial Relying on Recovered Memories and Expert Testimony......Page 1565
Conflicting Interpretations of Research on Evidence for Repression or Dissociative Amnesia, and Memories Recovered Therefrom......Page 1566
Use of Colloquial English by Complainants: What do People Mean by \"Blocking out\" and Memories \"Coming Back\"?......Page 1567
Guidelines for Forensic Psychological Assessors Instructed as Expert Witnesses......Page 1568
Further Reading......Page 1570
United Nations High Commission for Refugees......Page 1571
Who is a Refugee?......Page 1572
Some Important Considerations in Refugee Medicine......Page 1573
Tuberculosis and Associated Pulmonary Disorders......Page 1574
HIV Infection and Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases......Page 1576
Ethical Issues......Page 1577
Medicolegal Considerations......Page 1579
Further Reading......Page 1580
The Anglican Communion......Page 1583
Jehovah’s Witnesses......Page 1584
Hinduism......Page 1585
Care after death......Page 1586
Care after death......Page 1587
Shintoism......Page 1588
Taoism......Page 1589
Care after death......Page 1590
Further Reading......Page 1591
Death Statistics......Page 1593
Illustrative Cases......Page 1594
Investigation and Prosecution......Page 1595
Elements of Successful Prosecution......Page 1596
Further Reading......Page 1597
Handcuffs......Page 1598
Manual Body Restraint Holds......Page 1599
Excited Delirium......Page 1600
Investigating Restraint-Associated Deaths......Page 1601
Further Reading......Page 1602
Contemporary Blood Rituals......Page 1605
Vampire Culture and \"Blood Sports\"......Page 1606
Santería and Voodoo \"Blood Offerings\"......Page 1607
Palo Mayombe \"Blood and Human Remains\"......Page 1609
Animal Sacrifice......Page 1612
Ritual Murder......Page 1614
Further Reading......Page 1620
Mechanisms of Injury......Page 1621
Airbag Tethers and Covers......Page 1622
Direct trauma......Page 1623
Cranial and Intracranial Injuries......Page 1624
Cervical Spine Injuries......Page 1625
Thoracic Injuries......Page 1626
Upper Extremity Injuries......Page 1627
Respiratory Injuries......Page 1629
Side Airbags......Page 1630
Further Reading......Page 1631
Driving under the Influence of Drugs - Background......Page 1632
Driving under the Influence of Drugs - Legal Issues......Page 1633
Field Impairment Testing......Page 1634
The walk-and-turn test......Page 1635
The one-leg-stand test......Page 1636
Possible effects of cannabis......Page 1637
Cocaine......Page 1638
Long-acting......Page 1639
Possible effects of inhalants......Page 1640
Further Reading......Page 1641
Cardiac surgery involving median sternotomy......Page 1642
Valvular Disease......Page 1643
Multiple Sclerosis......Page 1644
Patient with seizure and the law......Page 1645
Hypothyroidism......Page 1646
Cataracts......Page 1647
Antidepressants......Page 1648
Benzodiazepines (Sedatives/Anxiolytics)......Page 1649
The Role of the Postmortem Examination......Page 1650
Profile of Elderly Drivers......Page 1651
Future Reading......Page 1652
The sobriety tests......Page 1653
Drugs and Driving......Page 1654
Phencyclidine (PCP)......Page 1655
The Drowsy Driver......Page 1656
Further Reading......Page 1657
France......Page 1659
The UK......Page 1660
Worldwide Statistics on Driving under the Influence......Page 1661
Urine Drug Testing: How to Perform Roadside Testing?......Page 1663
Further Reading......Page 1665
Definition......Page 1667
Serial Murder......Page 1668
Serial Sexual Murder......Page 1669
Body Disposal......Page 1671
Further Reading......Page 1672
The Importance of Communication between Law Enforcement and Laboratory Personnel......Page 1674
Immunological identification of blood and deter-mination of species origin......Page 1675
Semen......Page 1676
Saliva......Page 1677
Future Developments in Body Fluid Identification......Page 1678
Secretors and nonsecretors......Page 1679
Extracellular Proteins and Intracellular Enzymes......Page 1680
Significance of Genetic Marker Typing Data......Page 1681
Further Reading......Page 1683
Introduction......Page 1684
Microscopic Identification of Blood Stains......Page 1685
Test procedures......Page 1686
Crystal Tests......Page 1687
Double-diffusion (Ouchterlony) Technique......Page 1688
Rapid Immunoassay......Page 1689
Further Reading......Page 1690
Blood Stain Characteristics......Page 1691
Impact Blood Stain Patterns......Page 1694
Cast-Off Blood Stain Patterns......Page 1695
Projected Blood Stain Patterns......Page 1696
Contact Blood Stain Patterns......Page 1697
Blood Stain Drying Times......Page 1698
Documentation of Blood Stain Pattern Evidence......Page 1699
Further Reading......Page 1700
Modeling Human Sexual Responses......Page 1701
Sexual Arousal in the Male......Page 1702
Emission......Page 1703
Labia......Page 1704
Uterus and Cervix......Page 1705
Female Orgasm......Page 1706
Further Reading......Page 1707
Genital and Associated Injury......Page 1708
Genital Injury......Page 1709
Further Reading......Page 1710
Examination of the Complaint......Page 1712
Collection of Specimens from the Complainant......Page 1713
Final Report......Page 1715
Further Reading......Page 1716
Suspected Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault......Page 1717
Forensics in the domiciliary setting (nursing homes, prisons, and psychiatric units)......Page 1718
Prevention of HIV......Page 1719
Follow-Up......Page 1720
Further Reading......Page 1721
Physical Consequences of Male Sexual Abuse......Page 1723
Assessment of Sexual Assault of Male Adults......Page 1724
Further Reading......Page 1726
Drugs Used to Facilitate Sexual Assault......Page 1728
History and Legislation......Page 1729
See Also......Page 1730
Further Reading......Page 1731
The International Crime Victim Survey......Page 1734
Further Reading......Page 1735
The Age Distribution......Page 1737
Prone Sleeping Position......Page 1738
Bed Sharing - Cosleeping......Page 1739
A Matter of Different Diagnostic Practices?......Page 1740
Possible Lethal Mechanisms in SIDS......Page 1741
Hypoxia......Page 1742
Repeated Episodes of Hypoxia in SIDS......Page 1743
Predisposing Factor......Page 1744
SIDS and the Immune System......Page 1745
The Vicious Circle in SIDS......Page 1746
SIDS and \"Genetic Risk Factors\"......Page 1747
Will the SIDS Enigma be Solved in Our Time?......Page 1748
Further Reading......Page 1749
Other Nutrients......Page 1750
Starvation > 7 days and Weight Loss > 10%......Page 1751
Wound Healing......Page 1752
Clinical Outcome and Treatment......Page 1753
More Detailed Assessment......Page 1754
Ethical and Legal Aspects of  Difficult Clinical Problems Involving Feeding......Page 1755
Further Reading......Page 1756
Physical Examination......Page 1757
Infective Complications of Injection......Page 1758
Mental Health......Page 1759
Harm Reduction......Page 1760
Further Reading......Page 1761
Methamphetamine......Page 1763
Methylphenidate......Page 1764
Further Reading......Page 1765
Determining Causation......Page 1766
Terms and Definitions......Page 1767
Fluid Extracts......Page 1768
Renal Toxicity......Page 1769
Contamination and Adulteration......Page 1770
Drug Testing......Page 1771
Further Reading......Page 1772
Pharmacological Effects......Page 1773
Morbidity and Mortality......Page 1774
Definition of a Heroin Death......Page 1775
Treatment of Heroin Users......Page 1776
Further Reading......Page 1777
Overdose......Page 1778
Drug Interactions......Page 1779
Methadone Monitoring......Page 1780
Misuse......Page 1781
Further Reading......Page 1782
Benzodiazepines......Page 1783
Muscle Relaxants......Page 1784
Further Reading......Page 1785
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide......Page 1786
Ketamine......Page 1787
Inhalants......Page 1788
Club Drugs......Page 1789
GHB, gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), and 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD)......Page 1790
Further Reading......Page 1791
Characteristics......Page 1792
Targeted analytes from legitimate sources......Page 1793
Extraction......Page 1794
Qualitative Analysis......Page 1797
Instrumentation......Page 1798
Further Reading......Page 1802
The Basis of Hair Assays......Page 1804
Sequestration of Drugs in Hair......Page 1805
The Dose-Assay Relationship......Page 1806
Sequential Segmentation of a Single Hair Sample......Page 1807
Dose-Assay Relationship......Page 1808
Microingestion......Page 1809
Color Effects......Page 1810
Further Reading......Page 1811
Anatomy and Physiology......Page 1813
Interpretation......Page 1814
Sample Collection and Analysis......Page 1815
Anatomy and Physiology......Page 1816
Interpretation......Page 1817
Interpretation......Page 1818
Sample Collection and Analysis......Page 1819
Conclusion......Page 1820
Further Reading......Page 1821
Cocaine......Page 1823
Ecstasy and Other Dance-Scene Drugs......Page 1824
Polydrug Use......Page 1825
Further Reading......Page 1826
Legal Framework......Page 1827
Conclusions......Page 1829
Further Reading......Page 1830
Causes of Sudden Cardiac Death......Page 1831
Degrees of Certainty and Causes of Death......Page 1832
Myocardial Findings in Sudden Coronary Death......Page 1833
Anomalous Right Coronary Artery......Page 1834
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy......Page 1835
Idiopathic Concentric Left Ventricular Hypertrophy......Page 1836
Right Ventricular Hypertrophy and Pulmonary Hypertension......Page 1837
Mitral Valve Prolapse......Page 1838
Rupture of the Aorta......Page 1839
Ion Channel Disorders......Page 1840
Incidence......Page 1841
Further Reading......Page 1842
Subarachnoid hemorrhage......Page 1844
Respiratory System......Page 1845
Pneumonia......Page 1846
Spontaneous hemoperitoneum......Page 1847
See Also......Page 1848
Further Reading......Page 1849
Viral infections of the respiratory system......Page 1850
Bacterial infections of the cardiovascular system......Page 1851
Bacterial infections of the respiratory system......Page 1852
Bacterial infections of the gastrointestinal tract......Page 1853
Autopsy in Cases of Sudden Death due to Infectious Causes......Page 1854
See Also......Page 1855
Further Reading......Page 1856
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder......Page 1858
Suicide Rates......Page 1859
Methods of Suicide......Page 1860
Suicide, Murder, or Accident?......Page 1862
Conclusion......Page 1863
Further Reading......Page 1864
Framework of Assessment......Page 1865
The Broader Context......Page 1866
Repetition......Page 1867
Management......Page 1868
Further Reading......Page 1870
Study Results......Page 1871
Further Reading......Page 1873
Benefits of TEMS......Page 1875
The Daily Routine Doctrine......Page 1876
Emergency Medical Services and TEMS: Major Differences in Medical Care......Page 1877
TEMS Models......Page 1878
Medical Threat Assessments......Page 1879
Medical Intelligence......Page 1880
Clearance for Incarceration......Page 1881
See Also......Page 1882
Further Reading......Page 1883
Medicolegal Aspects of Tattoos......Page 1885
Describing Tattoos......Page 1887
Further Reading......Page 1888
Terrorist Bombings......Page 1889
Bomb Scene Management......Page 1891
Collection of Physical Evidence......Page 1892
Autopsy......Page 1893
Primary Blast Injuries......Page 1894
Further Reading......Page 1896
Nuclear Plant Sabotage......Page 1897
Tactical Nuclear Weapon......Page 1898
Case Study......Page 1900
Processing of Radioactive Tissues......Page 1904
Bioterrorism Agents......Page 1905
Forensic Considerations......Page 1906
Conclusion......Page 1908
Further Reading......Page 1909
Scene Investigation......Page 1910
Quaternary blast injuries......Page 1912
Internal injuries......Page 1913
Histopathology of Blast Lung Injury......Page 1914
Recovery of Evidence from the Body......Page 1915
Further Reading......Page 1916
Torture Methods......Page 1917
Medical Examination......Page 1918
Blunt-Force Injuries......Page 1919
Suspension......Page 1920
Burning and Electrical Torture......Page 1921
Further Reading......Page 1922
Psychological Torture......Page 1923
Self-Report and the Controversy about Traumatic Memory......Page 1924
Risk Factors, and Natural History of Trauma and Torture-Related Disorders......Page 1925
Conducting the Psychological Evaluation and Barriers to Full Disclosure......Page 1926
Diagnostic Considerations......Page 1927
Further Reading......Page 1928
Initial Tests and Confirmation......Page 1930
Common Drugs and Poisons......Page 1931
Specimens......Page 1932
Quality Assurance and Validation......Page 1933
Problems in Court Testimony......Page 1934
Blood and Plasma......Page 1935
Hair......Page 1936
Immunoassays......Page 1937
Gas Chromatography......Page 1938
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography......Page 1939
Mass Spectrometry......Page 1940
Further Reading......Page 1941
Specimens......Page 1942
Other Specimens......Page 1943
General Techniques......Page 1944
Recommended Techniques for Postmortem Analysis......Page 1945
Redistribution......Page 1946
Further Reading......Page 1947
Venom Delivery......Page 1949
Paralytic Neurotoxicity......Page 1950
Coagulopathy......Page 1952
Local Necrosis......Page 1954
Venomous Snakes......Page 1956
Diagnosis of Snakebite......Page 1957
Spider Bite......Page 1961
Venomous Stinging Fish......Page 1962
Summary......Page 1963
Further Reading......Page 1964
Pathology......Page 1965
Morphology......Page 1966
Latent Fingerprints......Page 1967
Further Reading......Page 1968
Dealing with the Immediate Crisis......Page 1970
Avoiding Assumptions Based on the Victim’s Response......Page 1971
The Legal Process......Page 1972
Summary......Page 1973
Further Reading......Page 1974
War Crimes Law and Site Investigations......Page 1975
Assessments......Page 1976
Historical Investigations......Page 1977
The Cerska Mass Grave......Page 1979
Expectations and Issues for the Future......Page 1981
Further Reading......Page 1982
Former Yugoslavia......Page 1984
Kosovo......Page 1985
Scope of the Pathology Investigation......Page 1986
Recognition of injuries as having occurred in life as opposed to after death......Page 1987
Contribution of the Pathology Evidence......Page 1988
Future Contribution......Page 1989
Further Reading......Page 1990
Codification of the Nuremberg and IMTFE Charters and Further Development of International Criminal Law......Page 1992
Office of the Prosecutor (OTP)......Page 1993
The International Criminal Court and the Rome Statute......Page 1994
The Office of the Prosecutor......Page 1995
Further Reading......Page 1996
Nature of Weapons Deployed......Page 1997
Injuries......Page 1998
Injuries from Bullets......Page 1999
Blast injuries......Page 2000
Further Reading......Page 2002
The Sociology and Criminology of the Yakuza......Page 2003
Tattooing......Page 2005
Penile Spheres......Page 2006
The New Generations of the Yakuza......Page 2007
See Also......Page 2008
Further Reading......Page 2009