Emerging Human Viral Diseases, Volume I: Respiratory and Haemorrhagic Fever

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I: Emerging Respiratory Viral Diseases
	1: Factors Contributing to the Emergence of Viral Diseases
		1.1 Introduction
			1.1.1 Viruses and Their Host Range
				1.1.1.1 Classifications, Genomic Contents and Morphologies of Viruses
				1.1.1.2 The ICTV Classification System
				1.1.1.3 The Baltimore Classification System
				1.1.1.4 Types of Virus Genomes
				1.1.1.5 Morphologies of Virions
				1.1.1.6 Kingdoms Parasitized by Viruses
				1.1.1.7 Receptor Usage and Successful Infection Leading to Disease
			1.1.2 Disease and Its Impact on Humanity
				1.1.2.1 Morbidity
				1.1.2.2 Mortality
				1.1.2.3 Disease Burden
				1.1.2.4 Global Losses Due to Disease
				1.1.2.5 Stresses on Economies
			1.1.3 What Makes Viral Disease Unique
				1.1.3.1 Koch´s Postulates
				1.1.3.2 Differences with Diseases of Other Aetiologies
				1.1.3.3 Transmission and Persistence
				1.1.3.4 Mutation and Evolution
				1.1.3.5 Latency and Reactivation
			1.1.4 Brief History of Human Viral Disease
				1.1.4.1 First-Ever Viral Disease Cases or Outbreaks Recorded
				1.1.4.2 Earliest Epidemics and Pandemics
				1.1.4.3 Emergence of Noteworthy Diseases from Key Geographic Locations
				1.1.4.4 Other Notable Epidemics and Pandemics in Human History
				1.1.4.5 Strategies Developed Against Viral Disease
				1.1.4.6 Changes in Human Understanding of Viral Disease
			1.1.5 Most Important Human Viral Diseases at Present
				1.1.5.1 Diseases of Public Health Importance
				1.1.5.2 Notifiable Diseases
				1.1.5.3 Viruses with Pandemic Potential
				1.1.5.4 Currently Important Viral Diseases and Measures Against Them
				1.1.5.5 Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
				1.1.5.6 Haemorrhagic Fevers
				1.1.5.7 Viral Hepatitis
				1.1.5.8 Influenza
				1.1.5.9 COVID-19
			1.1.6 Broad Categorization of Factors and How to Solve Them
			1.1.7 Viral Factors
				1.1.7.1 Evolution
				1.1.7.2 Host Range Expansion
				1.1.7.3 Vector Adaptation
				1.1.7.4 Resistance Development to Drugs
				1.1.7.5 Increase or Change in Pathogenicity or Disease Manifestation
				1.1.7.6 Strategies to Combat Host Immune Response
			1.1.8 Environmental Factors
				1.1.8.1 Geographic Distribution
				1.1.8.2 Overlap/Encroachment into and Modifications of Natural Host Habitat
				1.1.8.3 Socio-economic Conditions and Environmental Contamination
				1.1.8.4 Climatic Changes and Seasonality
				1.1.8.5 Vector Habitat Changes
				1.1.8.6 Non-human Host Exposure to Vector Species
			1.1.9 Human Factors
				1.1.9.1 Diagnostic Testing and Mistakes in It
				1.1.9.2 Correct and Timely Surveillance
				1.1.9.3 Export and Import of Diseases by Humans and Animals
				1.1.9.4 Population Size and Diversity
				1.1.9.5 Biosafety Breaches and Outbreak Containment
				1.1.9.6 Bioterrorism and Biowarfare
				1.1.9.7 Healthcare-Associated Transmission
				1.1.9.8 Engagement in Risky Behaviour
			1.1.10 The Importance of Studying Emerging Diseases
			1.1.11 Conclusion
		References
	2: An Updated Review on Influenza Viruses
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Epidemiology
			2.2.1 Host Range of Influenza Viruses
		2.3 Organization of Influenza Virus
			2.3.1 Classification
			2.3.2 Morphology and Virion Structure
			2.3.3 Genome Structure and Organization
			2.3.4 Viral Proteins
			2.3.5 Life Cycle of Influenza A Virus
			2.3.6 Virus Attachment and Entry to Host Cell Surface Receptors
			2.3.7 Replicating Their Genome
			2.3.8 Assembly, Maturation, and Release
			2.3.9 Propagation and Assay in In Vitro and In Vivo Laboratory Models
		2.4 Influenza Virus Evolution and Possible Emergence and Reemergence Risks
		2.5 Pathogenesis in Humans
			2.5.1 Host Viral Interaction
			2.5.2 Immune Responses to Influenza A Virus Infection
				2.5.2.1 Innate Immune Response to IVs Infection
				2.5.2.2 Adaptive Immune Response to IVs Infection
					2.5.2.2.1 Humoral Immunity to IVs
					2.5.2.2.2 Adaptive Cellular Immunity to IVs
		2.6 Clinical Manifestations
			2.6.1 Uncomplicated Influenza
			2.6.2 Complications of Influenza
		2.7 Diagnostics and Therapeutics Approaches
		2.8 Treatments
		2.9 Prevention and Control
			2.9.1 IIV
			2.9.2 LAIV
		2.10 Future Perspective
		References
	3: Avian Influenza: A Potential Threat to Human Health
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Organization of Infectious Agents
			3.2.1 Classification
			3.2.2 Morphology and Virion Structure
			3.2.3 Genome Structure and Organization
			3.2.4 Viral Proteins
		3.3 Replicative Cycle of AIVs
		3.4 Epidemiology
			3.4.1 Geographical Distribution
			3.4.2 Origin and Spread of AIVs Infecting Humans
			3.4.3 Exposure Risk Factors
			3.4.4 Host Risk Factors
		3.5 Biosafety Measures (Handling of Virus)
		3.6 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-Emergence
		3.7 Pathogenesis in Humans
			3.7.1 Host Viral Interaction and Immune Response
			3.7.2 Virulence and Persistence
			3.7.3 Clinical Manifestations
		3.8 Diagnostics
			3.8.1 Virus Isolation Using Cell Culture Approaches
				3.8.1.1 Serological Assays
			3.8.2 Nucleic Acid-Based Tests (NATs)
				3.8.2.1 Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR)
				3.8.2.2 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification-Based Assay (LAMP)
				3.8.2.3 Microarray-Based Approaches
				3.8.2.4 Nucleic Acid Sequencing Approaches
		3.9 Sequencing of the Next Generation (NGS)
		3.10 Infection Prevention and Control Measures
		3.11 Future Perspective
		References
	4: 2019 Novel Coronavirus
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Epidemiology
		4.3 Emergence and Spread
		4.4 Classification, Structure, Morphology, and Organization
		4.5 Viral Proteins and Life Cycle
		4.6 Pathogenesis in Humans
			4.6.1 Host Viral Interaction
		4.7 Host Immune Response
		4.8 Clinical Manifestations
		4.9 SARS CoV2 Long Covid/Post-Acute Sequelae
		4.10 Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches
			4.10.1 Antiviral and Prevention Approaches for COVID-19 Are Based On
		4.11 Vaccination
		4.12 Prevention and Control
		4.13 Future Perspective
		References
	5: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Associated Corona Virus [SARS-CoV]
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Brief History and Discovery
		5.3 Epidemiology
			5.3.1 Geographical Distribution
		5.4 Demographics of SARS-CoV Infection
		5.5 Origin of Infection and Diversity
		5.6 The 2003 SARS Pandemic
		5.7 Bio-safety Measures
		5.8 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
		5.9 Structural Organization of SARS-CoV
			5.9.1 Classification
			5.9.2 Morphology and Virion Structure
		5.10 Genome Structure and Organization
			5.10.1 Propagation and Assay in In Vitro and In Vivo Laboratory Models
		5.11 Viral Proteins and Life Cycle
		5.12 ACE-2 Receptor
		5.13 Pathology, Pathogenesis, and Host Viral Interactions in Humans
		5.14 Host Immune Response
			5.14.1 Innate Immune Response
			5.14.2 Adaptive Immunity
			5.14.3 Autoimmunity
			5.14.4 Persistence of SARS-CoV
			5.14.5 Phases of Disease
		5.15 Clinical Manifestations
		5.16 Diagnostics and Therapeutics Approaches
			5.16.1 Anti-virals
			5.16.2 Vaccines
		5.17 Prevention and Control of SARS-CoV Disease
		5.18 Future Perspective
		References
	6: Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV)
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 History and Discovery
		6.3 Epidemiology
		6.4 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
		6.5 Structural and Molecular Organization of MERS-CoV
			6.5.1 Taxonomy and Classification
		6.6 Morphology and Virion Structure
			6.6.1 Genome Structure and Organization
			6.6.2 Viral Proteins and Life Cycle
				6.6.2.1 Spike Protein (S)
				6.6.2.2 Envelope Protein (E)
				6.6.2.3 Membrane Protein (M)
				6.6.2.4 Nucleocapsid (N)
					6.6.2.4.1 Accessory Proteins (APs)
					6.6.2.4.2 Nonstructural Proteins (NSPs)
		6.7 MERS-CoV Life Cycle
		6.8 MERS CoV Pathogenesis
			6.8.1 Host Viral Interaction
			6.8.2 Host Immune Response
			6.8.3 Virulence
		6.9 Clinical Manifestations
			6.9.1 Clinical Symptoms
			6.9.2 Laboratory Diagnosis
				6.9.2.1 Molecular Assays
					6.9.2.1.1 Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) Assay
						Targeting upE and ORF 1b Genes
						Targeting MERS-CoV Nucleocapsid Gene
					6.9.2.1.2 Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (RT-LAMP)
				6.9.2.2 Serological Tests
					6.9.2.2.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
					6.9.2.2.2 Immunofluorescent Assay (IFA)
					6.9.2.2.3 Rapid Immunochromatographic Assay (RIA)
		6.10 Diagnostics and Therapeutics
		6.11 Prevention and Control
		6.12 Future Perspective
		References
	7: Respiratory Syncytial Virus
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Epidemiology
			7.2.1 Geographic Distribution and Seasonality
			7.2.2 Risk Population
				7.2.2.1 Infants and Children
				7.2.2.2 Elderly population
		7.3 Structural Organization of Respiratory Syncytial Virus
			7.3.1 Propagation of Respiratory Syncytial Virus
				7.3.1.1 In Vitro Models
				7.3.1.2 In Vivo Animal Models
			7.3.2 Replication of Respiratory Syncytial Virus
		7.4 Pathogenesis of Respiratory Syncytial Virus in Humans
			7.4.1 Innate Immunity
			7.4.2 Adaptive Immunity
				7.4.2.1 Cell Mediated Immunity to RSV
				7.4.2.2 Humoral Immunity to RSV
		7.5 Clinical Manifestation
			7.5.1 Histological Finding
			7.5.2 Laboratory Diagnosis
		7.6 Therapeutic Approaches
		7.7 Prevention
		7.8 Future Perspective
			7.8.1 Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine
			7.8.2 Respiratory Syncytial Virus Therapeutics
		7.9 Conclusion
		References
	8: Human Bocavirus
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Epidemiology
		8.3 The Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
		8.4 Organization of Infectious Agents (Structural and Molecular)
			8.4.1 Classification
			8.4.2 Morphology and Virion Structure
			8.4.3 Genome Structure and Organization
			8.4.4 Propagation and Assay in In Vitro and In Vivo Laboratory Models
			8.4.5 Life Cycle
		8.5 Pathogenesis in Humans
			8.5.1 Host-Virus Interaction and Host Immune Response
			8.5.2 Virulence and Persistence
		8.6 Clinical Manifestations
			8.6.1 Clinical Symptoms
			8.6.2 Serology and Histological Approaches
		8.7 Diagnostics
		8.8 Therapy, Prevention, and Control
		8.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	9: Measles: The Disease That Refuses to Be Vanquished
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Epidemiology
			9.2.1 Age, Mortality, and Morbidity
			9.2.2 Origin of Infection and Diversity
		9.3 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-Emergence
		9.4 Organization of Infectious Agents (Structural and Molecular)
			9.4.1 Classification
			9.4.2 Morphology and Virion Structure
			9.4.3 Propagation and Assay in In vitro and In vivo Laboratory Models
			9.4.4 Viral Proteins and Life Cycle
				9.4.4.1 Hemagglutinin (H) Glycoprotein
				9.4.4.2 Fusion (F) Glycoprotein
				9.4.4.3 P, C, and V Proteins
				9.4.4.4 M Protein
				9.4.4.5 N Protein
				9.4.4.6 L Protein
			9.4.5 Life Cycle of the Virus
				9.4.5.1 Host Cell Receptors and Cell Tropism
				9.4.5.2 Viral Entry
				9.4.5.3 Viral Protein Synthesis and Replication
				9.4.5.4 Assembly and Exit of the Virus
		9.5 Pathogenesis in Humans
			9.5.1 Host Range
			9.5.2 Disease Course
			9.5.3 Host Factors Involved
			9.5.4 Host Immune Response (Innate and Immune)
			9.5.5 Virulence and Persistence
		9.6 Clinical Manifestations
			9.6.1 Phases of Disease and Symptoms
		9.7 Diagnostics and Therapeutics Approaches
		9.8 Prevention and Control
			9.8.1 Management of Disease
			9.8.2 Prophylaxis
		9.9 Future Perspective
		References
Part II: Haemorrhagic Fever Viral Infections
	10: Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 What is Haemorrhage
		10.3 Case Definition of a Haemorrhagic Fever
		10.4 Etiological Agents Causing Haemorrhagic Fevers
		10.5 Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses Belong to Six Different Families
			10.5.1 Arenaviridae
			10.5.2 Bunyaviridae
			10.5.3 Filoviridae
			10.5.4 Flaviviridae
			10.5.5 Rhabdoviridae
			10.5.6 Togaviridae
		10.6 Pathophysiological Markers of Haemorrhagic Fever
		10.7 Biosafety Precautions for Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses
		10.8 Some Notable Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses and the Diseases Caused by Them
			10.8.1 Chikungunya Virus (CHIKV)
			10.8.2 Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Orthonairovirus (CCHFV)
			10.8.3 Dengue Virus (DENV)
			10.8.4 Ebolavirus (EBOV)
			10.8.5 Marburg Marburgvirus (MARV)
			10.8.6 Variola Virus (VARV)
			10.8.7 Tick-borne Encephalitis Virus (TBEV)
			10.8.8 Yellow Fever Virus (YFV)
		10.9 Haemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome (HFRS)
		10.10 Vaccines Against Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses
		10.11 Models for VHF Research
		10.12 Conclusion
		References
	11: Emerging Arboviral Infections
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Yellow Fever Virus
		11.3 Dengue Virus
		11.4 Zika Virus
		11.5 Chikungunya Virus
		11.6 West Nile Virus
		11.7 Conclusion
		References
	12: Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever: A Resurgent Arbovirosis in Humans
		12.1 Introduction
			12.1.1 Aetiology of Dengue: The Dengue Virus (DENV)
				12.1.1.1 Classification of DENV
				12.1.1.2 DENV Morphology
				12.1.1.3 Genome Organization
				12.1.1.4 Structural and Functional Features of DENV Proteins
					12.1.1.4.1 Structural Proteins
						Envelope (E) Protein
						Pre-membrane (prM) and Membrane (M) Proteins
						Capsid (C) Protein
					12.1.1.4.2 Non-structural Proteins (NSPs)
						Non-structural Protein 1 (NS1)
						Non-structural Proteins 2A (NS2A) and 2B (NS2B)
						Non-structural Protein 3 (NS3)
						Non-structural Proteins 4A (NS4A) and 4B (NS4B)
						Non-structural Protein 5 (NS5)
			12.1.2 DENV Pathogenesis and Replication
				12.1.2.1 Adsorption and Entry
				12.1.2.2 Early Gene Expression and Proteolytic Processing
				12.1.2.3 A Model of DENV RNA Replication
				12.1.2.4 Assembly, Maturation and Egress of Progeny Virions
			12.1.3 Epidemiology of Dengue
				12.1.3.1 Discovery and Origin of Dengue
				12.1.3.2 Geographical Distribution and the Global Scenario of Dengue
				12.1.3.3 Seasonality
				12.1.3.4 Transmission Cycles and Host Range
			12.1.4 Clinical Manifestations in Dengue
				12.1.4.1 Classification of Cases
			12.1.5 Diagnosis of Dengue
				12.1.5.1 Virus Isolation
				12.1.5.2 Nucleic Acid Detection
				12.1.5.3 NS1 Antigen Detection
				12.1.5.4 Serological Diagnosis
			12.1.6 Methods of Quantification of Dengue Viruses
				12.1.6.1 Cell Culture-based Virus Titration
				12.1.6.2 Serological Methods of Virus Titration
				12.1.6.3 Virus Titration Using Real-time RT-PCR
				12.1.6.4 Direct Counting of Viral Particles
			12.1.7 Therapeutic Approaches for Dengue
		References
	13: Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever Virus: A Complete Overview
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Epidemiology
		13.3 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
		13.4 Organization of Infectious Agents (Structural and Molecular)
		13.5 Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestation
		13.6 Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches
		13.7 Control Approach Against CCHF Virus
		13.8 Future Perspective of CCHF Virus
		References
	14: Ebola Virus Disease: An Emerging Lethal Disease in Africa
		14.1 Introduction
			14.1.1 Brief History
			14.1.2 Discovery and History
		14.2 Epidemiology
			14.2.1 Geographical Distribution/Demographic Age
			14.2.2 Mortality and Morbidity
			14.2.3 Origin of Infection and Diversity
			14.2.4 Spread of Disease
			14.2.5 Biosafety Measures
		14.3 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
		14.4 Organization of Infectious Agents
			14.4.1 Classification
			14.4.2 Virion Structure and Morphology
			14.4.3 Genome Structure and Organization
			14.4.4 Viral Protein and Life Cycle
		14.5 Pathogenesis in Humans, Host Viral Interaction Host Immune Response
			14.5.1 Pathogenesis of Ebola Virus in Humans
			14.5.2 The Host Cell Pathology
			14.5.3 Ebola Virus Gene Products Functions and Host Interactions
			14.5.4 Host Immune Response
				14.5.4.1 Innate Immune Response
				14.5.4.2 Adaptive Immune Response
			14.5.5 Evasion of the Immune System
		14.6 Diagnosis and Therapy
		14.7 Prevention and Management of EVD
		14.8 Future Perspectives
		References
	15: Hantaviruses as Emergent Zoonoses: A Global Threat
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Brief History
		15.3 Discovery
		15.4 Epidemiology
			15.4.1 Geographical Distribution/Demography
			15.4.2 Age/Mortality and Morbidity
			15.4.3 Origin of Infection and Diversity
			15.4.4 Spread of Disease (Epidemic, Sporadic, Pandemics Etc.)
		15.5 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
			15.5.1 Biosafety Measures (Handling of Virus)
		15.6 Organization of Infectious Agents (Structural and Molecular)
			15.6.1 Morphology and Virion Structure
			15.6.2 Genome Structure and Organization
			15.6.3 Viral Proteins and Life Cycle
		15.7 Pathogenesis in Human Host Viral Interaction
			15.7.1 Host Immune Response (Innate and Adaptive)
				15.7.1.1 Innate Immune Response
				15.7.1.2 Adaptive Immunity
		15.8 Virulence and Persistence
		15.9 Clinical Manifestations
			15.9.1 Phases of Disease
			15.9.2 Clinical Symptoms
			15.9.3 Early Symptoms
			15.9.4 Late Symptoms
		15.10 Diagnosis
			15.10.1 Clinical Assessment
			15.10.2 Differential Diagnosis
			15.10.3 Radiology
			15.10.4 Laboratory Animal Model Assays
				15.10.4.1 Mice
				15.10.4.2 Hamsters
				15.10.4.3 NHP Models
				15.10.4.4 Reservoir Hosts
			15.10.5 Isolation
			15.10.6 Serologic Assays
			15.10.7 Immunofluorescence Assay
			15.10.8 Immunoblot Assay
			15.10.9 Focus Reduction Neutralization Test
			15.10.10 Molecular Diagnosis
			15.10.11 Immunohistochemistry (IHC)
		15.11 Prevention and Control
			15.11.1 Vector Control
			15.11.2 Personal Protective Measures
			15.11.3 Vaccines
			15.11.4 Management of Diseases
				15.11.4.1 Supportive Care
				15.11.4.2 Therapeutic
				15.11.4.3 Virus-Targeting Antivirals
				15.11.4.4 Ribavirin
					15.11.4.4.1 Favipiravir
					15.11.4.4.2 Lactoferrin
					15.11.4.4.3 Vandetanib
					15.11.4.4.4 ETAR
					15.11.4.4.5 Cyclic Peptides
					15.11.4.4.6 Chloroquine
		15.12 Future Perspective
		References
	16: Kyasanur Forest Disease: A Neglected Zoonotic Disease of India
		16.1 Historical Perspective
		16.2 Epidemiology
		16.3 Transmission
		16.4 Clinical Features
		16.5 Diagnosis
		16.6 Laboratory Findings
		16.7 Pathophysiology
		16.8 Host-Immune Responses
		16.9 Genome
		16.10 Treatment
		16.11 Vaccine
		16.12 Preventive Measures
		16.13 Future Perspectives
		References
	17: An Imminence to Humans and Animals: The Rift Valley Fever Virus
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Epidemiology
			17.2.1 Molecular Epidemiology
		17.3 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
		17.4 Organization of the Virus
		17.5 Pathogenesis in Humans
		17.6 Clinical Manifestations
		17.7 Histopathology
		17.8 Infection Disengagement
		17.9 Serology
		17.10 Molecular Tools
		17.11 Therapeutic Approach
			17.11.1 Elective Immunizations
			17.11.2 Clone 13
			17.11.3 MP-12
			17.11.4 Recombinant Immunizations
		17.12 Prevention and Control
		17.13 Future Perspective
		References
	18: Yellow Fever: An Old Scourge with New Threats
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Epidemiology
		18.3 Potential Risk for Emergence and Re-emergence
		18.4 Organization of Agent (Structural and Molecular)
			18.4.1 Classification
			18.4.2 Virus Structure
			18.4.3 Viral Genome and Proteins
			18.4.4 Viral Replication
			18.4.5 In-Vitro Models for Propagation and Assays
			18.4.6 In-Vivo Models
		18.5 Pathogenesis in Human
		18.6 Clinical Manifestations
		18.7 Diagnostics
			18.7.1 Differential Diagnosis
			18.7.2 Laboratory Diagnosis
		18.8 Prevention, Control and Therapeutic Approaches
			18.8.1 Developments in Vector Control Programs
			18.8.2 Yellow Fever Vaccination
			18.8.3 Advances in Anti-viral Development
		18.9 Future Perspectives
		References
	19: Lassa Fever: An Emerging Immunodeficiency and Oncogenic Viral Infection
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Brief History
		19.3 Discovery
		19.4 Epidemiology
		19.5 Organization of Infectious Agents (Structural and Molecular)
		19.6 Pathogenesis in Humans
		19.7 Host Virus Interaction
			19.7.1 Host Immune Response (Innate and Immune)
			19.7.2 Virulence and Persistence
			19.7.3 Clinical Manifestations
		19.8 Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches
		19.9 Prevention and Control
		19.10 Future Perspective
		References
	20: Lujo Hemorrhagic Fever
		20.1 Introduction
			20.1.1 Brief History
			20.1.2 Discovery
		20.2 Epidemiology
			20.2.1 Geographical Distribution/Demographic
			20.2.2 Age, Mortality, and Morbidity
			20.2.3 Origin of Infection and Diversity
			20.2.4 Spread of Disease (Epidemics, Sporadic, Pandemics, Etc.)
				20.2.4.1 Transmission
			20.2.5 Biosafety Measures (Handling of the Virus)
		20.3 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
			20.3.1 Risk of Emergence
			20.3.2 Risk of Re-emergence
		20.4 Organisation of Infectious Agents (Structural and Molecular)
			20.4.1 Classification
			20.4.2 Morphology and Virion Structure
			20.4.3 Genome Structure and Organisation
			20.4.4 Propagation and Assay in In-Vitro and In-Vivo Laboratory Models
				20.4.4.1 Fc Pull-Down Assay
				20.4.4.2 Cell-Cell Fusion Assay
				20.4.4.3 In-Vitro Cell Lines Experimental Models
				20.4.4.4 In-Vivo Laboratory Models
			20.4.5 Viral Proteins and Life Cycle
		20.5 Pathogenesis in Humans
			20.5.1 Host Viral Interaction
			20.5.2 Host Immune Response (Innate and Immune)
			20.5.3 Virulence and Persistence
		20.6 Clinical Manifestations
			20.6.1 Phases of Disease
			20.6.2 Clinical Signs or Symptoms
			20.6.3 Clinical Laboratory Findings
			20.6.4 Serology, Molecular and Histological Approaches
				20.6.4.1 Serology
					20.6.4.1.1 Antigen Capture Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
					20.6.4.1.2 Immunohistochemical (IHC) Staining
					20.6.4.1.3 Immunofluorescent Antibody Assay (IFA)
					20.6.4.1.4 Antibody Detection ELISA
				20.6.4.2 Molecular Test
					20.6.4.2.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Methods
						RT-PCR Assay
						Real-Time RT-PCR Assay
						Primers and Probes for the Detection of LUJV RNA
				20.6.4.3 Histological Findings
		20.7 Diagnostics and Therapeutics Approaches
			20.7.1 Laboratory Diagnosis
			20.7.2 Therapeutic Approaches
			20.7.3 Recovery
		20.8 Prevention and Control
			20.8.1 Management of Disease
				20.8.1.1 Precautions for Isolation
				20.8.1.2 Clinical Management
		20.9 Future Perspectives and Anything Outstanding
		References
	21: Chapare Hemorrhagic Fever
		21.1 Introduction
			21.1.1 Brief History
			21.1.2 Discovery
		21.2 Epidemiology
			21.2.1 Geographical Distribution/Demographic
			21.2.2 Age, Mortality, and Morbidity
			21.2.3 Origin of Infection and Diversity
			21.2.4 Spread of Disease (Epidemics, Sporadic, Pandemics, Etc.)
			21.2.5 Biosafety Measures (Handling of Virus)
				21.2.5.1 Collection of Human Samples
				21.2.5.2 Rodent Samples
				21.2.5.3 Handling of Virus Samples
		21.3 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
		21.4 Organization of Infectious Agents (Structural and Molecular)
			21.4.1 Classification
			21.4.2 Morphology and Virion Structure
			21.4.3 Genome Structure and Organization
			21.4.4 Propagation and Assay in In-Vitro and In-Vivo Laboratory Models
			21.4.5 Viral Proteins and Life Cycle
		21.5 Pathogenesis in Humans
			21.5.1 Host Viral Interaction
			21.5.2 Host Immune Response (Innate and Immune)
			21.5.3 Virulence and Persistence
		21.6 Clinical Manifestations
			21.6.1 Phases of Disease
			21.6.2 Clinical Symptoms
			21.6.3 Serology, Molecular, and Histological Approaches
				21.6.3.1 Ag Captures Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
				21.6.3.2 Immuno-Histochemical Staining (IHC)
				21.6.3.3 Fluorescence Microscopy (IFAs)
				21.6.3.4 Antibody (Ab) Detection ELISA
				21.6.3.5 Neutralization Test (NT)
				21.6.3.6 Real-Time Reverse Transcription (RT)-PCR Assay
				21.6.3.7 Histopathological Analysis
		21.7 Diagnostics and Therapeutics Approaches
		21.8 Prevention and Control
			21.8.1 Management of Disease
		21.9 Future Perspective and Anything Outstanding for Virus
		References
	22: Bas-Congo Tibrovirus
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Epidemiology
		22.3 Potential Risk of Emergence and Re-emergence
		22.4 Organization of Infectious Agents
			22.4.1 Classification
			22.4.2 Morphology and Virion Structure
			22.4.3 Genome Structure and Organization
			22.4.4 In-Vitro and In-Vivo Assays
			22.4.5 Mode of Transmission
		22.5 Pathogenesis in Humans
			22.5.1 Host Viral Interaction
			22.5.2 Host Immune Response, Virulence and Persistence
		22.6 Clinical Manifestation
		22.7 Diagnostics and Therapeutics Approaches
		22.8 Prevention and Control
			22.8.1 Management of Disease
		22.9 Future Perspective
		References
Part III: Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections
	23: Rapid Diagnostic of Emerging Human Viral Pathogens: Lessons Learnt From COVID-19 Pandemic
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Conventional Methods for the Diagnosis of Viral Infections
			23.2.1 Electron Microscopy
			23.2.2 Cell Culture
			23.2.3 Complement Fixation (CFT)
			23.2.4 Hemagglutination
			23.2.5 Chest Computerized Tomography (CT)
			23.2.6 Serology of COVID-19
			23.2.7 ELISA-Based Immunodetection
			23.2.8 Immunofluorescence-Based Immunodetection
			23.2.9 Manual ELISA
			23.2.10 Automated Serology
			23.2.11 Rapid Serological Tests
			23.2.12 Protein Testing
			23.2.13 LIPS Profiling of Viral Antibodies
			23.2.14 Nucleic Acid Amplification Test (NAAT)
			23.2.15 Limitations
			23.2.16 NAAT During COVID-19 Pandemic
			23.2.17 Rapid and Point of Care (POC) NAAT: RT-LAMP
			23.2.18 Challenges with NAAT and CT scan
			23.2.19 Diagnosis by Microarrays
			23.2.20 DNA Sequencing and NGS
			23.2.21 Limitations of NGS
			23.2.22 CRISPR-Based Point of Care Viral Nucleic Acid Detection Kits
			23.2.23 Nanoparticles
			23.2.24 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			23.2.25 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS)
			23.2.26 Advanced/Alternative (POCT) Approaches
			23.2.27 Nano Biosensors
			23.2.28 Cantilever Biosensors
			23.2.29 Mass Spectrometry
			23.2.30 Mass Spectrometry-Based Proteomics in COVID-19
		23.3 Conclusion
		References
	24: Novel Diagnostic Methods for Emerging Respiratory Viral Infection
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Advanced Virological Diagnostic Techniques
		24.3 Modern Immunoassays for Serology
		24.4 Immunodetection Based on ELISA
		24.5 Immunodetection Based on Immunofluorescence
		24.6 Immunodetection Based on PCR/RT-PCR
		24.7 The Use of Spectroscopy in Immunodetection
		24.8 miRNA-Based Immunodetection
		24.9 Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)-Based Immunodetection
		24.10 Metagenomics-Based Immunodetection
		24.11 Monoclonal Antibodies-Based Immunodetection
		24.12 Immunosensors-Based Immunodetection
		24.13 Microfluidic Technology-Based
		24.14 CRISPR/Cas System-Based Immunodetection
		24.15 Nanoparticles-Based Immunodetection
		24.16 Respiratory Viral Infections: Prevention and Therapy
		24.17 Additional Vaccines, As Well As Novel Vaccination Strategies
		24.18 Antiviral Therapeutics
		References
	25: Evolution of Viral Diagnostics: A Peek into Time
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Viral Culture
		25.3 Serological Assays
		25.4 Neutralizing Antibody Assay
		25.5 Hemagglutination Inhibition (HI) Test
		25.6 Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay
			25.6.1 Microfluidics Based ELISA
			25.6.2 Gold-Nano Particles in ELISA
		25.7 Chemiluminescence Immunoassay (CLIA)
		25.8 Microscopy
		25.9 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		25.10 Computed Tomography
		25.11 NAAT-Based Assays
			25.11.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction
			25.11.2 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification-Based Assay (LAMP)
			25.11.3 Nucleic Acid Sequencing Based Amplification (NASBA)
		25.12 Microarray-Based Approaches
		25.13 Helicase Dependent Isothermal Amplification (HDA)
		25.14 Transcription Mediated Amplification (TMA)
		25.15 Microfluidics Based Amplification Assays
			25.15.1 Chip-Based Systems
			25.15.2 Hybrid Systems
		25.16 Aptamers
		25.17 Next-Generation Sequencing
		25.18 CRISPR-Cas
			25.18.1 Cas Specific CRISPR-Cas Application in Diagnostics
				25.18.1.1 Cas9 Based Diagnostics
				25.18.1.2 Cas12 Based Diagnostics
				25.18.1.3 Cas13 Based Diagnostics
		25.19 Lab-on-Chip Assays
		25.20 Artificial Intelligence
		References