Emerging European Economies after the Pandemic: Stuck in the Middle Income Trap?

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Contributors
Chapter 1 Convergence to the Centre
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Convergence
		1.2.1 A Brief Theory
		1.2.2 Development and Growth
		1.2.3 Sources of Growth
		1.2.4 External Finance and the Demand Side
		1.2.5 Social Convergence
	1.3 Potential Lessons from the 2008-2012 Global Financial Crisis: a Resilience Analysis
	1.4 The Covid Shock
		1.4.1 Cyclical Positions
		1.4.2 Macroeconomic Developments
		1.4.3 Social Developments: a First View
		1.4.4 Comparing the 2008-2012 and the Covid-19 Shocks
	1.5 Looking Beyond: Expected Recovery
		1.5.1 Forecasting Uncertainty
		1.5.2 Persistent Changes
			1.5.2.1 Past Pandemics
			1.5.2.2 Global Value Chains
			1.5.2.3 Scarring
	1.6 Summary and Implications
		1.6.1 Convergence
		1.6.2 Convergence and Resilience
		1.6.3 The Covid Shock and its Comparison to the Global Financial Crisis
		1.6.4 Future Prospects
	References
Chapter 2 Financial Markets: Banks and Capital Markets
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Basic Characteristics of Financial Intermediation in the EEE
		2.2.1 Depth and Structure of Financial Intermediation
		2.2.2 Specificities of the Shadow Banking System in the EEE
		2.2.3 Ownership Structure of the Banking System in the EEE
	2.3 Post-GFC Financial System in the EEE – from Stabilization to the Covid Shock (2014-2019)
		2.3.1 Banks
			2.3.1.1 Regulatory and Institutional Changes Post-GFC
			2.3.1.2 Balance Sheet Developments
				About the Banking Data
			2.3.1.3 Funding
			2.3.1.4 Capital Position
			2.3.1.5 Asset Quality
			2.3.1.6 Profitability
		2.3.2 Capital Markets
			2.3.2.1 Regulatory and Institutional Changes Post-Crisis
			2.3.2.2 Capital Markets Environments
			2.3.2.3 Securities Markets
		2.3.3 Investors – the Asset Management Industry
	2.4 Covid and the EEE Financial System
		2.4.1 Banks
			2.4.1.1 Covid-related Regulatory Measures
			2.4.1.2 Practices with Moratoria in the EEE
			2.4.1.3 Non-Performing Loans (NPL) during the Pandemic
			2.4.1.4 Lending During the Pandemic
			2.4.1.5 Banks’ Profitability during the Pandemic
			2.4.1.6 Banks’ Capital Position
			2.4.1.7 Managing Non-Performing Loans post-Covid
		2.4.2 Capital Markets
			2.4.2.1 Covid-related Capital Market Regulatory Measures
			2.4.2.2 Capital Market Developments
	2.5 Conclusions and Longer-Term Perspectives
	Annex
	References
Chapter 3 Firm Size, Productivity, EU Funds, and Corruption
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Firm Size Distribution in the EEE
		3.2.1 Small is Beautiful, but Large is Useful
		3.2.2 Average Firm Size in the EU Countries
		3.2.3 Factors of Firm Size Distribution
		3.2.4 Firm Size Differences and Labor Productivity
		3.2.5 The Role of Foreign-owned Firms in FSD and Exports in the EEE
			3.2.5.1 The Role of Foreign-owned Firms in FSD
			3.2.5.2 Firm Size Distribution, FDI and Exports
		3.2.6 Impacts of Covid-19 and Economic Policy Dilemmas in the Context of Different Firm Sizes
	3.3 Corruption Risk and Intensity of Competition of EU-funded Public Tenders
		3.3.1 Corruption, Competition, and EU Funds as Foreign Aid
		3.3.2 Corruption Risk and EU Funds
	3.4 Policy Implications
	References
Chapter 4 Labour Markets: Structural Characteristics and the Impact of Two Crises
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Demography and Migration
	4.3 Employment Situation
	4.4 GDP and Employment Comparison
	4.5 Sectoral Employment Structures and the Impact of Economic Recessions
	4.6 Wage Growth, Minimum Wage, and the Cost of Living
	4.7 Unit Labour Costs and Their Decomposition: Dynamics Over Crisis and Recovery Phases
	4.8 Regional Disparities in Labour Markets
	4.9 The Effects of the Covid Shock
	4.10 Impact of the Covid-crisis on Occupations
	4.11 Long-term Prospects and Policy Recommendations
	References
Chapter 5 Transport and Mobility
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Transport Policy in the EEE Region
		5.2.1 Infrastructure Development and Prevalence of EU Funds
		5.2.2 Public Service Provision
		5.2.3 Deregulation of Transport Markets
	5.3 Emerging Trends in Mobility
		5.3.1 Greening of Vehicle Fuels
		5.3.2 New Mobility Services
		5.3.3 ICT Developments Changing Needs
			ICT Infrastructure and Use in the EEE
			Work from Home: Telework and Telecommuting
			Online Shopping
			Travel and Accommodation Services
	5.4 The Effects and Aftermath of the Covid Shock
		5.4.1 Mobility Restrictions and Impacts
		5.4.2 Public Interventions in the Pandemic
			Public Service Provision
			Road Use and Parking Regulation
		5.4.3 Downturn in Liberalised Transport Markets
			Airline Industry
			Case study
			Liberalised Land Transport Modes
	5.5 Prospects after the Pandemic
		5.5.1 The Role of Transport Policy in National Recovery Plans
		5.5.2 Transport Funding and the EU Cohesion Policy
		5.5.3 Transport, Mobility, and the Middle Income Trap
	5.6 Conclusions and Policy Recommendations
	References
Chapter 6 Monetary, Macroprudential, and Fiscal Policy
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Recovery and Progress after the Global Financial Crisis
		6.2.1 Monetary Policy
			6.2.1.1 Conventional and Unconventional Policy Tools
				Policy Rate and Corridor
				Liquidity Measures and Standing Facilities
				Unconventional Measures
			6.2.1.2 Some Challenges and Puzzles
				Trilemma or Dilemma?
				Declining Neutral Rate and Policy Space
				Inflation Puzzle – Increasing Role of Global Factors?
		6.2.2 Macroprudential Policy
			6.2.2.1 Institutional Framework for Macroprudential Policy Making in the EEE
			6.2.2.2 Macroprudential Tools
				Capital-based Measures
				Borrower-based Measures
		6.2.3 Fiscal Policy
			6.2.3.1 Fiscal Policy Framework
			6.2.3.2 Fiscal Stance in the EEE
		6.2.4 Overall Policy Mix: Cycle and Stance
	6.3 Policy Response to the Covid-19 Crisis
		6.3.1 Monetary Policy
		6.3.2 Macroprudential Policy
		6.3.3 Fiscal Policy
			6.3.3.1 Fiscal Measures
			6.3.3.2 Debt Developments
			6.3.3.3 Contingent Liabilities
	6.4 Long-term Prospects and Policy Implications
		6.4.1 Monetary and Macroprudential Policy
			6.4.1.1 Monetary Policy Framework and Tools
			6.4.1.2 Macroprudential Policies
			6.4.1.3 Functions and Independence of Central Banks
		6.4.2 Fiscal Policy
		6.4.3 Policy Interactions
	References
Chapter 7 Green Economy: Energy, Environment, and Sustainability
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Background and Summary
		7.2.1 The Great Reset: SDG as the Target
		7.2.2 Data and Methods
	7.3 Regional Assessment of Sustainable Development Goals
	7.4 Impact of Covid-19: Resiliency and Sustainable Development Goals
		7.4.1 Finance and Energy Transitions
		7.4.2 Converging and Diverging Paths of Sustainability
			7.4.2.1 Results
	7.5 Policy Recommendations and Highlights
	7.6 Conclusion
	7.7 Annex
	References
Chapter 8 Health and Social Security
	8.1 Health Status, Healthcare, and Social Security, 2009-2019
		8.1.1 Health Status and Demographic Structure Based on Composite Indicators
		8.1.2 Size and Structure of Healthcare Expenditure and Structure of Health Services
			8.1.2.1 Healthcare Financing
			8.1.2.2 Healthcare Provision Structure
			8.1.2.3 Performance of Healthcare Systems: Treatable Mortality
	8.2 The Impact of the Covid-19 Shock
		8.2.1 Direct Health Impacts
		8.2.2 Vaccinations
		8.2.3 Healthcare Responses
		8.2.4 Indirect Impacts of Covid-19 on Health Status and Healthcare Use of People Aged 50+
		8.2.5 Impacts of Covid-19 on Social Security
	8.3 Long-term Prospects and Conclusions
	References
Chapter 9 Aging and Pension Systems
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Aging in the EU and the EEE
	9.3 Pension Systems in the EEE, 1990–2019
		9.3.1 Public Finance
		9.3.2 Pensions
		9.3.3 Pensions in the EEE
		9.3.4 Country Specifics
	9.4 Pre-Covid Forecasts
		9.4.1 Pension Systems
		9.4.2 Discussion of the Forecasts
	9.5 The Impact of Covid-19
		9.5.1 Introduction
		9.5.2 Demographic Impact
			Case Study: Effect of the Covid-19 Mortality Shock on Pension Expenses in Hungary
		9.5.3 Labor Market Impact
			Case Study: The Covid-19 Employment Shock and its Effect on Future Pensions in Hungary
		9.5.4 Regulatory and Behavioral Impact
		9.5.5 Impact on the EEE
		9.5.6 Long-term Policy Considerations
	9.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 10 Public Education
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 The Effectiveness of Public Education in the EEE before the Pandemic
	10.3 Education Policy and Student Performance
	10.4 The Covid Shock -– Countries’ Education Responses
	10.5 The Preparedness of the EEE for Remote Teaching
	10.6 Learning Losses due to the COVID Crisis
	10.7 Conclusions and Policy Recommendations
	References
Chapter 11 Research & Development and Higher Education
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 The Global R&D and HE Environment: Trends, Developments, and Challenges
	11.3 R&D in the EEE
		11.3.1 R&D Expenditures
		11.3.2 Human Resources for Science and Technology
		11.3.3 Results of R&D Efforts
	11.4 Innovation in the EEE
		Case study
	11.5 Higher Education
		11.5.1 Students and Educational Attainment
		11.5.2 Public Spending on Tertiary Education
		11.5.3 University Rankings
		11.5.4 Country Profiles
			Case study
		11.5.5 Higher Education in the Time of Covid-19
	11.6 Long Term Prospects and Recommendations
	References
Chapter 12 Inequality and Welfare
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Income Distribution before 2009: Literature Review
	12.3 Changes in Income Inequality since the GFC
	12.4 Development of Poverty Indicators since the Great Financial Crisis
	12.5 Wealth Inequality
	12.6 Inequality Effects of the Covid Crisis in the EEE
		12.6.1 Potential Distributional Effects of Economic Crises in General, and of the Covid Crisis in Particular
		12.6.2 Preliminary Results on the Distributional Effects of the Covid Crisis in the EEE
			12.6.2.1 Immediate Effects of the Covid Crisis on Various Socio-economic Circumstances that Might Affect Inequality in the Medium term
			12.6.2.2 Effects of the Covid Crisis on the Distribution of Labour Income
			12.6.2.3 The Impact of the Distribution of Household Incomes: Market Income and Policy Effects
			12.6.2.4 The Effect of the Covid Crisis on Subgroups of the Population
			12.6.2.5 The Attitude Climate and Reactions to Policies
	12.7 Conclusion
	References