Emerging and Transboundary Animal Viruses

Preface
“Emerging and Transboundary Animal Viruses”: A Publication from World Society for Virology
	About World Society for Virology
About the Book
Contents
Editors and Contributors
	About the Editors
	Contributors
Chapter 1: Emerging and Transboundary Animal Viral Diseases: Perspectives and Preparedness
	1.1 Preamble
	1.2 Emerging Diseases
	1.3 Transboundary Diseases
		1.3.1 Source of the Pathogens of EIDs and TADs
		1.3.2 Transboundary Diseases as Potential Threats
			1.3.2.1 Globalisation and Trade
			1.3.2.2 Intensive Animal Production Systems to Meet the Rising Demand for Animal Protein
			1.3.2.3 Impact of Changes in Forest Ecology
			1.3.2.4 Influences of Increased Conflicts and Unrest
			1.3.2.5 Effect of Climate Change, Global Warming and Microbial Evolution
			1.3.2.6 TADs as a Serious Threat to National Security
	1.4 Threat of Bioterror/Biowarfare
	1.5 Handling of New Viral Disease Outbreaks
	1.6 Biosecurity and Biosafety Measures to Combat Viral Infections
		1.6.1 Biosafety and Biosecurity
		1.6.2 Biosecurity Policies, Protocols and Action Plans
			1.6.2.1 Biosecurity at International Borders
			1.6.2.2 Biosecurity Measures at National Level
			1.6.2.3 Farm Biosecurity
	1.7 Early Disease Reporting and Compensation Play a Key Role in Animal Health Management
	1.8 Failure in Timely Disease Reporting Hastens Spread of TADs
	1.9 Steps for Control of EIDs and TADs
		1.9.1 Preparedness Plans
		1.9.2 Decentralisation of Authority
		1.9.3 International Coordination
		1.9.4 Understanding of Ecology, Microbial Evolution and Traffic
		1.9.5 Expanded and Robust Surveillance System
		1.9.6 Disease Intelligence
		1.9.7 Updating of the Vaccines as per the Current Antigenic Types and Genotypes
	1.10 Lessons Learnt from TADs
		1.10.1 Benefits of Vaccination
		1.10.2 Research on Vaccines and Vaccinology
			1.10.2.1 Multivalent Vaccines
			1.10.2.2 Monitoring of Vaccine Response
			1.10.2.3 Import Risk Analysis
	1.11 Disease-Free Zones
	1.12 Financing Is Key for the Control and Management of TADs
		1.12.1 Economic Burden from Transboundary Diseases
		1.12.2 Availability of Adequate Financial Support
	1.13 ‘One World–One Health’ Approach
	1.14 Experiences Gained with Some TADS
		1.14.1 Avian Influenza
		1.14.2 African Swine Fever
		1.14.3 Foot-and-Mouth Disease
		1.14.4 Rinderpest: Now a Disease of Past
	1.15 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 2: African Swine Fever Virus
	2.1 Prologue
	2.2 Virus
	2.3 Epidemiology of Disease
	2.4 Transmission
		2.4.1 Sylvatic Cycle
		2.4.2 Fomite Transmission
	2.5 Immunopathobiology
	2.6 Diagnostics
	2.7 Prevention and Control
		2.7.1 Inactivated Vaccines
		2.7.2 Subunit Vaccines
		2.7.3 Live Vaccines
		2.7.4 DNA Vaccines
		2.7.5 Antiviral Formulations
		2.7.6 Control of ASF
	References
Chapter 3: Classical Swine Fever Virus
	3.1 Preamble
	3.2 Taxonomy and Structure of CSFV
	3.3 The Genome
	3.4 Attachment, Entry and Replication of CSFV
	3.5 Genetic Diversity
	3.6 Epidemiology
		3.6.1 Geographic Distribution
		3.6.2 Host Susceptibility
		3.6.3 Survivability of the Virus
		3.6.4 Transmission
		3.6.5 Pathogenesis
		3.6.6 Clinical Symptoms and Lesions
		3.6.7 Immune Response
	3.7 Laboratory Diagnosis
		3.7.1 Samples of Choice
		3.7.2 Isolation of the Virus
		3.7.3 Detection of CSFV Antigen
		3.7.4 Detection of CSFV Nucleic Acid
		3.7.5 Detection of CSFV Antibodies
		3.7.6 Prevention and Control
	3.8 Conclusion and Perspectives
	References
Chapter 4: Porcine Coronaviruses
	4.1 Prologue
	4.2 Pathogenesis and Clinical Signs
		4.2.1 TGEV
		4.2.2 PRCV
		4.2.3 PEDV
		4.2.4 PDCoV
	4.3 Incidence and Prevalence of the Disease
		4.3.1 TGEV
		4.3.2 PRCV
		4.3.3 PEDV
		4.3.4 PDCoV
	4.4 Immunobiology
		4.4.1 TGEV/PRCV
		4.4.2 PEDV
		4.4.3 PDCoV
	4.5 Diagnosis
		4.5.1 TGEV/PRCV
		4.5.2 PEDV
		4.5.3 PDCoV
	4.6 Transmission, Risk Factors and Stability
		4.6.1 TGEV
		4.6.2 PRCV
		4.6.3 PEDV
		4.6.4 PDCoV
	4.7 Prevention and Control
		4.7.1 TGEV
		4.7.2 PEDV
		4.7.3 PDCoV
	References
Chapter 5: Torque Teno Virus
	5.1 Preamble
	5.2 Virus Taxonomy
	5.3 Structure, Genome Organisation and Replication
	5.4 Torque Teno Sus Virus
		5.4.1 Virus Diversity
		5.4.2 Epidemiology
		5.4.3 Pathogenesis and Clinical Disease
		5.4.4 Diagnosis
		5.4.5 Immunisation
	References
Chapter 6: Teschovirus
	6.1 Preamble
	6.2 Epidemiology of the Disease
		6.2.1 The Causative Agent
			6.2.1.1 Classification
			6.2.1.2 Virus Characteristics and Genome Organisation
			6.2.1.3 Virion Resistance
			6.2.1.4 Serotypes/Strain Variability
		6.2.2 Host Species
		6.2.3 Geographical Distribution
		6.2.4 Mortality and Morbidity
		6.2.5 Transmission
	6.3 Pathogenesis
	6.4 Clinical Signs
	6.5 Diagnosis
		6.5.1 History
		6.5.2 Samples to Collect
		6.5.3 Post-mortem Lesions
		6.5.4 Virus Isolation
		6.5.5 Nucleic Acid Detection
		6.5.6 Antibody Detection
		6.5.7 Differential Diagnosis
	6.6 Prevention and Control
		6.6.1 Immunity
		6.6.2 Cross-Protection
		6.6.3 Preventive Measures
	References
Chapter 7: Animal Flaviviruses
	7.1 Preamble
	7.2 Flavivirus Replication
	7.3 Japanese Encephalitis Virus
		7.3.1 Origin of Japanese Encephalitis Virus
		7.3.2 Genotype of JEV
		7.3.3 Incidence and Prevalence of JEV in Livestock
		7.3.4 Transmission of JEV
		7.3.5 Risk Factors Associated with JEV Infection
		7.3.6 Immunobiology of JEV
		7.3.7 Diagnostics for JEV Infection
		7.3.8 Prevention and Control Strategies for JE
	7.4 West Nile Virus
		7.4.1 Origin of West Nile Virus
		7.4.2 Incidence and Prevalence of WNV
		7.4.3 Transmission of WNV
		7.4.4 Immunobiology of WNV
			7.4.4.1 Innate Immune Response
			7.4.4.2 Adaptive Immunity
			7.4.4.3 Immune Responses Within CNS
		7.4.5 Diagnostics for WNV
		7.4.6 Risk Factors Associated with WNV Infection
		7.4.7 Prevention and Control for WNV
	7.5 Conclusions
	7.6 Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 8: Orbiviruses
	8.1 Preamble
	8.2 Orbivirus History
	8.3 Classification/Taxonomy of Orbivirus
	8.4 Properties of the Orbiviruses
		8.4.1 Physicochemical and Physical Properties of the Orbiviruses
		8.4.2 Biological Properties of the Orbiviruses
	8.5 Orbivirus Genome and Their Encoded Proteins
	8.6 Structure of the Orbiviruses
	8.7 Orbivirus Infection and Replication
	8.8 Epidemiology and Disease of Orbiviruses
		8.8.1 Bluetongue Virus
		8.8.2 Epizootic Haemorrhagic Disease Virus
		8.8.3 African Horse Sickness Virus
		8.8.4 Equine Encephalosis Virus
		8.8.5 Peruvian Horse Sickness Virus
		8.8.6 Palyam Virus
		8.8.7 Eubenangee Virus
		8.8.8 Wallal Virus and Warrego Virus
		8.8.9 Yunnan Orbivirus
		8.8.10 Changuinola Virus
		8.8.11 Corriparta Virus
		8.8.12 Ieri Virus
		8.8.13 Great Island Virus
		8.8.14 Chenuda Virus
		8.8.15 Lebombo Virus
		8.8.16 Orungo Virus
		8.8.17 Other Orbiviruses
	8.9 Relationships Among Orbiviruses
		8.9.1 Serological Relationships of the Orbivirus Species
		8.9.2 The Genetic Relatedness of Different Orbiviruses
		8.9.3 Phylogenetic Relationships Between the Different Orbivirus Species
			8.9.3.1 Phylogenetic Relationship Based on Sub-core T2 Protein
			8.9.3.2 Phylogenetic Relationship Based on VP1 (Pol or RdRp) Protein
			8.9.3.3 Phylogenetic Relationship Based on Outer Capsid Proteins
		8.9.4 Evolutionary Relationship of the Orbiviruses
	8.10 Orbivirus Diagnosis
		8.10.1 Virological and Immunological (Serological) Approaches
		8.10.2 Molecular Approaches to Virus Identification and Diagnosis
	8.11 Immunology of Orbiviruses
	8.12 Emergence and Re-emergence of Orbiviruses
	8.13 Surveillance, Prevention and Control of Orbiviruses
	8.14 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 9: Equine Influenza Virus
	9.1 Preamble
	9.2 Biology of Influenza Virus
	9.3 Epidemiology and Evolution of EIV
	9.4 Species Involved
	9.5 History of Equine Influenza
	9.6 EI in India
	9.7 Pathogenesis
	9.8 Risk Factors
	9.9 Clinical Signs
	9.10 Pathological Findings
	9.11 Cell-Mediated Immunity
	9.12 Zoonotic Potential
	9.13 Treatment
	9.14 Control of Outbreaks
	9.15 Prevention and Vaccination
	References
Chapter 10: Schmallenberg Virus
	10.1 Preamble
	10.2 History
	10.3 Disease
	10.4 Post-mortem Findings
	10.5 Impacts
	10.6 Virus
	10.7 Resistance to Physical and Chemical Action
	10.8 Phylogeny
	10.9 Epidemiology of Disease
		10.9.1 Incidence and Prevalence
		10.9.2 Risk Factors
	10.10 Transmission
		10.10.1 Susceptible Species
		10.10.2 Horizontal Transmission
		10.10.3 Vector
		10.10.4 Vertical Transmission
		10.10.5 Semen
	10.11 Immunopathobiology
	10.12 Diagnostics
		10.12.1 Sample Collection
		10.12.2 Nucleic Acid Detection
		10.12.3 Virus Isolation in Cell Culture
		10.12.4 Serological Test
		10.12.5 Differential Diagnosis
	10.13 Prevention and Control
	References
Chapter 11: Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever Virus
	11.1 Preamble
	11.2 Genome Organisation
	11.3 Genetic Diversity
	11.4 Epidemiology
		11.4.1 India
		11.4.2 World
		11.4.3 Wild Animals
		11.4.4 Birds
	11.5 Transmission
	11.6 Immunopathobiology
		11.6.1 Incubation Period
		11.6.2 Clinical Signs in Animals
		11.6.3 Clinical Signs in Humans
		11.6.4 Pathogenesis
		11.6.5 Entry of Virus
		11.6.6 Dissemination
		11.6.7 Endothelial Cell (EC) Damage and Vascular Leakage
		11.6.8 Impairment of Immune Response
		11.6.9 Haemophagocytosis
		11.6.10 Impairment of Haemostasis and Coagulation
		11.6.11 Histopathology
	11.7 Diagnostics
		11.7.1 Virus Isolation
		11.7.2 Antigen Detection
		11.7.3 Molecular Diagnostics
	11.8 Prevention and Control
		11.8.1 Supportive Treatment
		11.8.2 Antiviral Therapy
		11.8.3 Vaccines
		11.8.4 Modes of Prevention
	References
Chapter 12: Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus
	12.1 Preamble
	12.2 PRRS Virion and Genome Structure
	12.3 Molecular Epidemiology of PRRSV
		12.3.1 Diversity and Evolution of Type 1 PRRSV
		12.3.2 Diversity and Evolution of Type 2 PRRSV
		12.3.3 Emergence of Highly Pathogenic PRRSV in China
	12.4 Transmission, Infectivity and Pathogenesis of PRRSV
	12.5 Immunopathobiology of PRRSV Infection
		12.5.1 Innate Immune Responses to PRRSV Infection
		12.5.2 Acquired Immunity
	12.6 Clinical Manifestations of PRRS
	12.7 Pathology of PRRS
	12.8 Diagnosis of PRRS
		12.8.1 Detection of Virus or Viral Antigen
		12.8.2 Assays for Detection of Serum Antibodies
	12.9 Isolation of Virus
	12.10 PRRSV Vaccines
	12.11 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 13: Peste Des Petits Ruminant Virus
	13.1 Preamble
	13.2 History
	13.3 Peste Des Petits Ruminants Virus
		13.3.1 Nucleocapsid (N) Protein
		13.3.2 Matrix (M) Protein
		13.3.3 Surface Glycoproteins
		13.3.4 Large (L) Protein
		13.3.5 Phosphoprotein (P) Protein
		13.3.6 Accessory Proteins
		13.3.7 Molecular Biology of Virus
	13.4 Prevalence of Disease
	13.5 Risk Factors
	13.6 Pathobiology
	13.7 Transmission
	13.8 Clinical Manifestations
	13.9 Diagnosis
	13.10 Socioeconomic Impact of PPR
	13.11 Prevention and Control
		13.11.1 Vaccination
	13.12 Perspectives
	References
Chapter 14: Sapelovirus
	14.1 Preamble
	14.2 Virus Characteristics
	14.3 Virus Taxonomy
	14.4 Viral Genome
	14.5 Epidemiology
		14.5.1 Species Affected
		14.5.2 Geographic Distribution and Strain Variability
	14.6 Transmission and Pathogenesis
	14.7 Clinical Signs
	14.8 Morbidity and Mortality
		14.8.1 Post-mortem and Histopathology
	14.9 Diagnosis
		14.9.1 Clinical History
		14.9.2 Samples
		14.9.3 Detection of Virus, Nucleic Acid or Antigens
	14.10 Immunity
	14.11 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
Chapter 15: Hepatitis E Viruses
	15.1 Overview
	15.2 History of Hepatitis E
	15.3 Virus Classification and Genome
	15.4 Host-Virus Interactions
	15.5 Transmission and Epidemiology of HEV
	15.6 HEV and Zoonoses
	15.7 Diagnosis of HEV
	15.8 Prevention and Vaccines
	15.9 Conclusions and Prospects
	References