ELEMENTS OF POWER SYSTEMS

Content: IntroductoryIntroductionSignificance of Electrical EnergyBasic Concepts of Power SystemSingle-Line Diagram of a Power Supply NetworkDifferent Types of Energy SourcesPer-Unit SystemsIntroductionPer-Unit Representation of Basic Electrical QuantitiesChange of BasePer-Unit Quantities in a Three-Phase SystemBase Quantities in Terms of kV and MVAPer-Unit Impedance of a TransformerAdvantages of pu RepresentationWorked ExamplesLoad CharacteristicsIntroductionLoadVariable LoadConnected LoadDemandDemand IntervalMaximum Demand or Peak LoadDemand FactorAverage Load or Average DemandLoad FactorDiversity FactorPlant Capacity FactorPlant Use FactorUnits Generated Per AnnumLoss FactorLoad CurvesInformation Obtained From Load CurvesLoad Duration CurveInformation Available From Load Duration CurveWorked ExamplesTariffsIntroductionObjectives of TariffDesirable Characteristics of a TariffTypes of TariffWorked ExamplesMechanical Design of Overhead LineIntroductionConductor MaterialLine SupportsIndian Electricity Rules (1956) for Overhead LinesSag in Overhead LinesCalculation of SagSag TemplateStringing ChartWorked ExamplesOverhead Line InsulatorsIntroductionInsulator MaterialsTypes of InsulatorsPotential Distribution over Suspension Insulator StringString EfficiencyMathematical ExpressionMethods of Improving String EfficiencyEffects of Rain on the String EfficiencyWorked ExamplesCoronaIntroductionThe Phenomenon of CoronaTheory of Corona FormationFactors Affecting CoronaAdvantages of CoronaDisadvantagesMethods of Reducing Corona EffectCritical Disruptive VoltageVisual Critical VoltagePower Loss Due to CoronaRadio InterferenceInductive Interference between Power and Communication LinesWorked ExamplesTransmission Line ParametersIntroductionLine InductanceFlux Linkage Due to a Single Current-Carrying ConductorInductance of a Single-Phase Two-Wire LineFlux Linkages of One Conductor in a Group of ConductorsInductance of Three-Phase Overhead Line with Unsymmetrical SpacingInductance of Three-Phase Line with More than One CircuitCapacitancePotential at a Charged Single ConductorSystem of ConductorsCapacitance of a Single-Phase Two-Wire LineCapacitance of a Three-Phase Overhead LinesEffect of Earth on the Transmission Line CapacitanceBundled ConductorSkin EffectProximity EffectWorked ExamplesPerformance of Transmission LinesIntroductionClassification of Lines Performance of Single-Phase Short Transmission LineShort Three-Phase LineTransmission Line as Two Port NetworkLine RegulationLine EfficiencyPerformance of Medium Transmission LineCalculation of Transmission Efficiency and Regulation of Medium LineLong Transmission LineEvaluation of ABCD ConstantsFerranti EffectABCD ConstantsWorked ExamplesUnderground CablesIntroductionInsulating Materials for CablesConstruction of CablesClassification of CableCables for Three-Phase ServiceLaying of Underground CablesInsulation Resistance of a Single-Core CableCapacitance of a Single-Core CableDielectric Stress in a Single-Core CableMost Economical Conductor Size in a CableGrading of CablesCapacitance in a Three-Core-Belted CableMeasurement of Cc and Cs Current-Carrying CapacityThermal ResistanceThermal Resistance of Dielectric of a Single-Core CableTypes of Cable FaultsLoop Tests for Location of Faults in Underground CablesWorked ExamplesDistribution SystemIntroductionClassification of Distribution SystemsDC DistributionConnection Schemes of Distribution System Types of DC Distributors DC Distribution CalculationsDC Distributor Fed at One End-Concentrated LoadingDC Distributor Fed at One End-Uniformly LoadedDistributor Fed at Both Ends-Concentrated LoadingDistributor Fed at Both Ends-Uniformly LoadedRing DistributorRing Main Distributor with InterconnectorAC DistributionAC Distribution CalculationMethods of Solving AC Distribution ProblemsWorked ExamplesFault AnalysisIntroductionClassification of FaultsSymmetrical Component MethodSignificance of Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-Sequence ComponentsOperator (a)Voltage of the NeutralSequence Network EquationsSequence Impedances of Power System ElementsAnalysis of Unsymmetrical FaultsSingle Line-to-Ground Fault (L-G)Line-to-Line FaultDouble Line-to-Ground FaultL-L-L Fault/Three-Phase Fault/Symmetrical FaultWorked ExamplesCircuit BreakersIntroductionDifference between CB and FuseOperating Principle of CB Arc PhenomenonPrinciples of Arc ExtinctionMethods of Arc ExtinctionSome Important DefinitionsExpression for Restriking Voltage TransientsCurrent ChoppingResistance SwitchingCB RatingsAutoreclosingClassification of CBsOil CBsTypes of Oil CBsPlain-Break Oil CBsArc Control Oil CBs Low-Oil CBs Maintenance of Oil CBsAir-Blast CBsTypes of Air-Blast CBVacuum CBsSF6 CBsHigh-Voltage DC CBWorked Examples Different Types of RelaysIntroductionEssential Qualities of ProtectionClassification of RelayBasic Relay TerminologyZones of ProtectionPrimary and Backup ProtectionClassification of Protective SchemeConstruction and Operating Principles of RelayOvercurrent ProtectionTime-Current CharacteristicsCurrent SettingPlug Setting MultiplierTime Multiplier SettingOvercurrent Protection SchemeDirectional Power or Reverse Power RelayDirectional Overcurrent RelayProtection of Parallel FeederProtection of Ring MainsEarth Fault Protection SchemeDistance Protection SchemeImpedance RelayReactance Relaymho Type Distance RelayUniversal Torque EquationDifferential RelaysSimple Differential RelayPercentage Differential RelayBalanced Voltage Differential RelayTranslay RelayWorked ExamplesProtection of Alternator and TransformersIntroductionProtection of AlternatorsStator ProtectionRotor ProtectionMiscellaneousTransformer ProtectionPercentage Differential ProtectionOverheating ProtectionRate of Rise of Pressure RelayOvercurrent ProtectionOverfluxing ProtectionEarth Fault ProtectionBuchholz RelayGenerator-Transformer Unit ProtectionWorked ExamplesTravelling WaveIntroductionSurge Impedance and Velocity of PropagationReflection and Refraction of WavesReceiving End Transmission Operating on No-Load ConditionReceiving End Operating on Short Circuit ConditionReflection and Refraction at a T-JunctionWorked ExamplesEarthingIntroductionObjects of EarthingClassification of EarthingIsolated Neutral or Undergrounded NeutralAdvantages of Neutral GroundingMethods of Neutral GroundingWorked ExamplesSubstationIntroductionSubstationClassification of SubstationsComparison between Outdoor and Indoor SubstationsTransformer SubstationsEquipment in a Transformer SubstationBus-Bar Arrangements in SubstationsKey Diagram of 11 kV/400 V Indoor SubstationPower System StabilityIntroductionStability Limits and Power Transmission CapabilityInfinite BusSynchronous Generator Connected to an Infinite BusPowers-Angle CurvePower Angle Relations for General Network ConfigurationSteady-State Stability CriterionTransient Stability Swing EquationSwing CurvesM and H ConstantsEquivalent SystemEquivalent M Constant of Two MachinesEqual-Area Criterion of StabilitySystem Fault and Subsequent Circuit IsolationMethods of Improving StabilityWorked ExamplesLoad FlowsIntroductionBus ClassificationBus Admittance MatrixDevelopment of Static Load Flow EquationGauss-Seidel Iterative TechniqueGS Method of Solution of Load Flow Equation using YbusNewton-Raphson Method for Load Flow SolutionComparison of Load Flow Analysis MethodsWorked Examples