Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach, 7th Edition

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 10
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics......Page 34
Introduction......Page 35
1–1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics......Page 36
1–2 Variables and Types of Data......Page 39
1–3 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques......Page 42
Random Sampling......Page 43
Systematic Sampling......Page 44
Cluster Sampling......Page 45
1–4 Observational and Experimental Studies......Page 46
1–5 Uses and Misuses of Statistics......Page 49
Changing the Subject......Page 50
Faulty Survey Questions......Page 51
1–6 Computers and Calculators......Page 52
Summary......Page 58
CHAPTER 2 Frequency Distributions and Graphs......Page 68
Introduction......Page 69
2–1 Organizing Data......Page 70
Categorical Frequency Distributions......Page 71
Grouped Frequency Distributions......Page 72
The Histogram......Page 84
The Frequency Polygon......Page 86
The Ogive......Page 87
Relative Frequency Graphs......Page 89
Distribution Shapes......Page 92
2–3 Other Types of Graphs......Page 101
Bar Graphs......Page 102
Pareto Charts......Page 103
The Time Series Graph......Page 104
The Pie Graph......Page 106
Misleading Graphs......Page 109
Stem and Leaf Plots......Page 113
Summary......Page 127
CHAPTER 3 Data Description......Page 136
Introduction......Page 137
3–1 Measures of Central Tendency......Page 138
The Mean......Page 139
The Median......Page 142
The Mode......Page 144
The Midrange......Page 147
The Weighted Mean......Page 148
Distribution Shapes......Page 150
3–2 Measures of Variation......Page 156
Range......Page 157
Population Variance and Standard Deviation......Page 158
Sample Variance and Standard Deviation......Page 161
Variance and Standard Deviation for Grouped Data......Page 162
Coefficient of Variation......Page 165
Range Rule of Thumb......Page 166
Chebyshev’s Theorem......Page 167
The Empirical (Normal) Rule......Page 169
Standard Scores......Page 175
Percentiles......Page 176
Quartiles and Deciles......Page 182
Outliers......Page 184
The Five-Number Summary and Boxplots......Page 195
Summary......Page 204
CHAPTER 4 Probability and Counting Rules......Page 214
Introduction......Page 215
Basic Concepts......Page 216
Classical Probability......Page 219
Complementary Events......Page 222
Empirical Probability......Page 224
Law of Large Numbers......Page 226
Probability and Risk Taking......Page 227
4–2 The Addition Rules for Probability......Page 232
The Multiplication Rules......Page 244
Conditional Probability......Page 249
Probabilities for “At Least”......Page 251
The Fundamental Counting Rule......Page 257
Permutations......Page 260
Combinations......Page 262
4–5 Probability and Counting Rules......Page 270
Summary......Page 275
CHAPTER 5 Discrete Probability Distributions......Page 284
Introduction......Page 285
5–1 Probability Distributions......Page 286
Mean......Page 292
Variance and Standard Deviation......Page 295
Expectation......Page 297
5–3 The Binomial Distribution......Page 303
The Multinomial Distribution......Page 316
The Poisson Distribution......Page 317
The Hypergeometric Distribution......Page 319
Summary......Page 325
CHAPTER 6 The Normal Distribution......Page 332
Introduction......Page 333
6–1 Normal Distributions......Page 335
The Standard Normal Distribution......Page 337
Finding Areas Under the Standard Normal Distribution Curve......Page 338
A Normal Distribution Curve as a Probability Distribution Curve......Page 340
6–2 Applications of the Normal Distribution......Page 349
Finding Data Values Given Specific Probabilities......Page 352
Determining Normality......Page 355
Distribution of Sample Means......Page 364
Finite Population Correction Factor (Optional)......Page 370
6–4 The Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution......Page 373
Summary......Page 380
CHAPTER 7 Confidence Intervals and Sample Size......Page 388
Introduction......Page 389
7–1 Confidence Intervals for the Mean Whenσ Is Known and Sample Size......Page 390
Confidence Intervals......Page 391
Sample Size......Page 396
7–2 Confidence Intervals for the Mean When σ Is Unknown......Page 403
7–3 Confidence Intervals and Sample Size for Proportions......Page 410
Confidence Intervals......Page 411
Sample Size for Proportions......Page 412
7–4 Confidence Intervals for Variances and Standard Deviations......Page 418
Summary......Page 425
CHAPTER 8 Hypothesis Testing......Page 432
Introduction......Page 433
8–1 Steps in Hypothesis Testing—Traditional Method......Page 434
8–2 z Test for a Mean......Page 446
P-Value Method for Hypothesis Testing......Page 451
8–3 t Test for a Mean......Page 460
8–4 z Test for a Proportion......Page 470
8–5 χ[sup(2)] Test for a Variance or Standard Deviation......Page 478
Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Testing......Page 490
Type II Error and the Power of a Test......Page 492
Summary......Page 495
CHAPTER 9 Testing the Difference Between Two Means, Two Proportions, and Two Variances......Page 504
Introduction......Page 505
9–1 Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Using the z Test......Page 506
9–2 Testing the Difference Between Two Means of Independent Samples: Using the t Test......Page 517
9–3 Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Dependent Samples......Page 524
9–4 Testing the Difference Between Proportions......Page 536
9–5 Testing the Difference Between Two Variances......Page 545
Summary......Page 556
Hypothesis-Testing Summary 1......Page 564
CHAPTER 10 Correlation and Regression......Page 566
Introduction......Page 567
10–1 Scatter Plots and Correlation......Page 568
Correlation......Page 572
Line of Best Fit......Page 584
Determination of the Regression Line Equation......Page 585
Types of Variation for the Regression Model......Page 598
Standard Error of the Estimate......Page 601
Prediction Interval......Page 603
10–4 Multiple Regression (Optional)......Page 606
The Multiple Regression Equation......Page 608
Testing the Significance of R......Page 610
Adjusted R[sup(2)]......Page 611
Summary......Page 615
CHAPTER 11 Other Chi-Square Tests......Page 622
Introduction......Page 623
11–1 Test for Goodness of Fit......Page 624
Test of Normality (Optional)......Page 629
Test for Independence......Page 637
Test for Homogeneity of Proportions......Page 642
Summary......Page 652
CHAPTER 12 Analysis of Variance......Page 660
Introduction......Page 661
12–1 One-Way Analysis of Variance......Page 662
Scheffé Test......Page 673
Tukey Test......Page 675
12–3 Two-Way Analysis of Variance......Page 678
Summary......Page 692
Hypothesis-Testing Summary 2......Page 700
CHAPTER 13 Nonparametric Statistics......Page 702
Introduction......Page 703
Ranking......Page 704
13–2 The Sign Test Single-Sample Sign Test......Page 706
Paired-Sample Sign Test......Page 708
13–3 The Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test......Page 714
13–4 The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test......Page 719
13–5 The Kruskal-Wallis Test......Page 724
Rank Correlation Coefficient......Page 730
The Runs Test......Page 733
Summary......Page 741
Hypothesis-Testing Summary 3......Page 747
CHAPTER 14 Sampling and Simulation......Page 750
Introduction......Page 751
Random Sampling......Page 752
Systematic Sampling......Page 756
Stratified Sampling......Page 757
Cluster Sampling......Page 759
Other Types of Sampling Techniques......Page 760
14–2 Surveys and Questionnaire Design......Page 767
The Monte Carlo Method......Page 770
Summary......Page 776
APPENDIX A: Algebra Review......Page 784
APPENDIX B–1 Writing the Research Report......Page 790
APPENDIX B–2 Bayes’ Theorem......Page 792
APPENDIX B–3 Alternate Approach to the Standard Normal Distribution......Page 796
APPENDIX C: Tables......Page 800
APPENDIX D: Data Bank......Page 830
APPENDIX E: Glossary......Page 838
APPENDIX F: Bibliography......Page 846
APPENDIX G: Photo Credits......Page 848
APPENDIX H: Selected Answers......Page 850
Index......Page 892