Electronic instrumentation

Cover
Contents
1. Qualities of Measurements
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Performance Characteristics
	1.3 Static Characteristics
	1.4 Error in Measurement
	1.5 Types of Static Error
	1.6 Sources of Error
	1.7 Dynamic Characteristics
	1.8 Statistical Analysis
	1.9 Standard
	1.10 Electrical Standards
	1.11 Atomic Frequency and Time Standards
	1.12 Graphical Representation of Measurements as a Distribution
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
2. Indicators and Display Devices
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Basic Meter Movement
	2.3 Taut Band Instrument
	2.4 Electrodynamometer
	2.5 Moving Iron Types Instrument
	2.6 Concentric Vane Repulsion Type (Moving Iron Type) Instrument
	2.7 Digital Display System and Indicators
	2.8 Classifi cation of Displays
	2.9 Display Devices
	2.10 Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
	2.11 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
	2.12 Other Displays
	2.13 Printers
	2.14 Classifi cation of Printers
	2.15 Printer Character Set
	2.16 Character at a Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Drum Wheel)
	2.17 Line at a Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Line Printers)
	2.18 Drum Printer
	2.19 Dot-Matrix Printers
	2.20 Character at a Time Dot-Matrix Impact Printer
	2.21 Non-Impact Dot-Matrix (NIDM) Printers
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Further Reading
3. Ammeters
	3.1 DC Ammeter
	3.2 Multirange Ammeters
	3.3 The Aryton Shunt or Universal Shunt
	3.4 Requirements of a Shunt
	3.5 Extending of Ammeter Ranges
	3.6 RF Ammeter (Thermocouple)
	3.7 Limitations of Thermocouples
	3.8 Effect of Frequency on Calibration
	3.9 Measurements of Very Large Currents by Thermocouples
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
4. Voltmeters and Multimeters
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Basic Meter as a DC Voltmeter
	4.3 DC Voltmeter
	4.4 Multirange Voltmeter
	4.5 Extending Voltmeter Ranges
	4.6 Loading
	4.7 Transistor Voltmeter (TVM)
	4.8 Chopper Type DC Amplifi er Voltmeter (Microvoltmeter)
	4.9 Solid State Voltmeter
	4.10 Differential Voltmeter
	4.11 DC Standard/Difference Voltmeter
	4.12 AC Voltmeter Using Rectifi ers
	4.13 AC Voltmeter Using Half Wave Rectifi er
	4.14 AC Voltmeter Using Full Wave Rectifi er
	4.15 Multirange AC Voltmeter
	4.16 Average Responding Voltmeter
	4.17 Peak Responding Voltmeter
	4.18 True RMS Voltmeter
	4.19 True RMS Meter
	4.20 Considerations in Choosing an Analog Voltmeter
	4.21 Ohmmeter (Series Type Ohmmeter)
	4.22 Shunt Type Ohmmeter
	4.23 Calibration of DC Instrument
	4.24 Calibration of Ohmmeter
	4.25 Multimeter
	4.26 Multimeter Operating Instructions
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
5. Digital Voltmeters
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 RAMP Technique
	5.3 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM (Voltage to Time Conversion)
	5.4 Integrating Type DVM (Voltage to Frequency Conversion)
	5.5 Most Commonly Used Principles of ADC (Analog to Digital Conversion)
	5.6 Successive Approximations
	5.7 Continuous Balance DVM or Servo Balancing Potentiometer Type DVM
	5.8 3½-Digit
	5.9 Resolution and Sensitivity of Digital Meters
	5.10 General Specifi cations of a DVM
	5.11 Microprocessor-Based Ramp Type DVM
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
6. Digital Instruments
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Digital Multimeters
	6.3 Digital Frequency Meter
	6.4 Digital Measurement of Time
	6.5 Universal Counter
	6.6 Decade Counter
	6.7 Electronic Counter
	6.8 Digital Measurement of Frequency (Mains)
	6.9 Digital Tachometer
	6.10 Digital pH Meter
	6.11 Automation in Digital Instruments
	6.12 Digital Phase Meter
	6.13 Digital Capacitance Meter
	6.14 Microprocessor-Based Instruments
	6.15 The IEEE 488 Bus
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Further Reading
7. Oscilloscope
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Basic Principle
	7.3 CRT Features
	7.4 Block Diagram of Oscilloscope
	7.5 Simple CRO
	7.6 Vertical Amplifi er
	7.7 Horizontal Defl ecting System
	7.8 Triggered Sweep CRO
	7.9 Trigger Pulse Circuit
	7.10 Delay Line in Triggered Sweep
	7.11 Sync Selector for Continuous Sweep CRO
	7.12 Typical CRT Connections
	7.13 High Frequency CRT or Travelling Wave Type CRT
	7.14 Dual Beam CRO
	7.15 Dual Trace Oscilloscope
	7.16 Electronic Switch
	7.17 (VHF) Sampling Oscilloscope
	7.18 Storage Oscilloscope (For VLF Signal)
	7.19 Digital Readout Oscilloscope
	7.20 Measurement of Frequency by Lissajous Method
	7.21 Spot Wheel Method
	7.22 Gear Wheel Method
	7.23 Checking of Diodes
	7.24 Basic Measurement of Capacitance and Inductance
	7.25 Oscilloscope as a Bridge Null Detector
	7.26 Use of Lissajous Figures for Phase Measurement
	7.27 Standard Specifi cations of a Single Beam CRO
	7.28 Probes for CRO
	7.29 Attenuators
	7.30 Applications of Oscilloscope
	7.31 Delayed Sweep
	7.32 Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
	7.33 Fibre Optic CRT Recording Oscilloscope
	7.34 Oscilloscope Operating Precautions
	7.35 Placing an Oscilloscope in Operation
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
8. Signal Generators
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Fixed Frequency AF Oscillator
	8.3 Variable AF Oscillator
	8.4 Basic Standard Signal Generator (Sine Wave)
	8.5 Standard Signal Generator
	8.6 Modern Laboratory Signal Generator
	8.7 AF Sine and Square Wave Generator
	8.8 Function Generator
	8.9 Square and Pulse Generator (Laboratory Type)
	8.10 Random Noise Generator
	8.11 Sweep Generator
	8.12 TV Sweep Generator
	8.13 Marker Generator
	8.14 Sweep-Marker Generator
	8.15 Wobbluscope
	8.16 Video Pattern Generator
	8.17 Colour Bar Generator
	8.18 Vectroscope
	8.19 Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO)
	8.20 Standard Specifi cations of a Signal Generator
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Further Reading
9. Wave Analyzers and Harmonic Distortion
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Basic Wave Analyzer
	9.3 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer
	9.4 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer
	9.5 Harmonic Distortion Analyzer
	9.6 Spectrum Analyzer
	9.7 Digital Fourier Analyzer
	9.8 Practical FFT Spectrum Analysis Using a Waveform Processing Software (Ss-36)
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Further Reading
10. Measuring Instruments
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Output Power Meters
	10.3 Field Strength Meter
	10.4 Stroboscope
	10.5 Phase Meter
	10.6 Vector Impedance Meter (Direct Reading)
	10.7 Q Meter
	10.8 LCR Bridge
	10.9 RX Meters
	10.10 Automatic Bridges
	10.11 Transistor Tester
	10.12 Megger
	10.13 Analog pH Meter
	10.14 Telemetry
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
11. Bridges
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Wheatstone’s Bridge (Measurement of Resistance)
	11.3 Kelvin’s Bridge
	11.4 Practical Kelvin’s Double Bridge
	11.5 Bridge Controlled Circuits
	11.6 Digital Readout Bridges
	11.7 Microprocessor Controlled Bridges
	11.8 AC Bridges
	11.9 Capacitance Comparison Bridge
	11.10 Inductance Comparison Bridge
	11.11 Maxwell’s Bridge
	11.12 Hay’s Bridge
	11.13 Schering’s Bridge
	11.14 Wien’s Bridge
	11.15 Wagner’s Earth (Ground) Connection
	11.16 Resonance Bridge
	11.17 Maxwell–Wien Bridge
	11.18 Anderson Bridge
	11.19 The Owen Bridge
	11.20 De Sauty Bridge
	11.21 Carey Foster / Heydweiller Bridge
	11.22 Types of Detectors
	11.23 Precautions to be Taken when Using a Bridge
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
12. Recorders
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Strip Chart Recorder
	12.3 Galvanometer Type Recorder
	12.4 Null Type Recorder (Potentiometric Recorders)
	12.5 Circular Chart Recorder
	12.6 X–Y Recorder
	12.7 Magnetic Recorders
	12.8 Frequency Modulation (FM) Recording
	12.9 Digital Data Recording
	12.10 Objectives and Requirements of Recording Data
	12.11 Recorder Selections for Particular Applications
	12.12 Recorder Specifi cations
	12.13 Potentiometric Recorder (Multipoint)
	12.14 Digital Memory Waveform Recorder (DWR)
	12.15 Applications of a Strip Chart Recorder
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
13. Transducers
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Electrical Transducer
	13.3 Selecting a Transducer
	13.4 Resistive Transducer
	13.5 Resistive Position Transducer
	13.6 Strain Gauges
	13.7 Resistance Thermometer
	13.8 Thermistor
	13.9 Inductive Transducer
	13.10 Differential Output Transducers
	13.11 Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
	13.12 Pressure Inductive Transducer
	13.13 Capacitive Transducer (Pressure)
	13.14 Load Cell (Pressure Cell)
	13.15 Piezo Electrical Transducer
	13.16 Photo Electric Transducer
	13.17 Photo-Voltaic Cell
	13.18 Semiconductor Photo Diode
	13.19 The Photo-Transistor
	13.20 Temperature Transducers
	13.21 Frequency Generating Transducer
	13.22 Reluctance Pulse Pick-Ups
	13.23 Flow Measurement (Mechanical Transducers)
	13.24 Mechanical Flow Meter
	13.25 Magnetic Flow Meters
	13.26 Turbine Flowmeter
	13.27 Measurements of Thickness Using Beta Gauge
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Further Reading
14. Signal Conditioning
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Operational Amplifi er (OPAMP)
	14.3 Basic Instrumentation Amplifi er
	14.4 Applications of Instrumentation Amplifi ers (Specifi c Bridge)
	14.5 Chopped and Modulated DC Amplifi er
	14.6 Modulators
	Review Questions
	Further Reading
15. Filters
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Fundamental Theorem of Filters
	15.3 Passive Filters
	15.4 Active Filters
	15.5 Butterworth Filter
	15.6 Band Pass Filter
	15.7 Band Reject (Stop) Filter
	15.8 All Pass Filter
	15.9 Universal Active Filters
	15.10 Designing Procedures for FLT-U2
	15.11 Types of Active Filters
	15.12 Digital Filters
	15.13 Discrete Functions
	15.14 The 1-D Sampling Theorem
	15.15 The 2-D Sampling Theorem
	15.16 The 1-D Z-Transform
	15.17 Fundamental Properties of 1-D Digital Systems
	15.18 Fundamental Property of 2-D Digital Systems
	15.19 Frequency Domain Representation
	15.20 FIR 1-D Digital Filter Design (The Window Method)
	15.21 Design Methods for IIR Digital Filters
	15.22 1-D IIR Filter Design
	15.23 Program for the Design of Butterworth and Chebyschev IIR Digital Filters by Means of the Bilinear Transformation
	15.24 Microprocessor Based Digital Filter
	15.25 Applications of Digital Filters
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
16. Measurement Set-up
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Measurements of Microwave Frequencies
	16.3 Resonant Co-Axial Lines
	16.4 Cavity Wavemeters
	16.5 RF/UHF Field Strength Meter (Methods for Measuring the Strength of Radio Waves)
	16.6 Measurement of Sensitivity
	16.7 Measurement of Selectivity
	16.8 Intermodulation Method of Measuring Non-Linear Distortion
	16.9 Measuring Frequency Response in Audio Amplifi ers
	16.10 Modulation
	16.11 Measuring Frequency Modulation
	16.12 Measuring Frequency Deviation with a Radio Receiver
	16.13 Measuring Amplitude Modulation Using CRO
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Further Reading
17. Data Acquisition System (DAS)
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Objective of a DAS
	17.3 Signal Conditioning of the Inputs
	17.4 Single Channel Data Acquisition System
	17.5 Multi-Channel DAS
	17.6 Computer Based DAS
	17.7 Digital to Analog (D/A) and Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters
	17.8 Data Loggers
	17.9 Sensors Based Computer Data Systems
	17.10 Electromechanical A/D Converter
	17.11 Digital Transducer
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
18. Data Transmission
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Data Transmission Systems
	18.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Transmission Over Analog
	18.4 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
	18.5 Pulse Modulation
	18.6 Digital Modulation
	18.7 Pulse Code Format
	18.8 Modems
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Further Reading
19. Frequency Standards
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Primary Standards
	19.3 Secondary Standards of Frequency
	19.4 Practical Frequency Standards
	19.5 Radio Signals as Frequency Standards
	19.6 Precision Frequency Standards
	19.7 The Atomic Clock
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Further Reading
20. Measurement of Power
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Requirements of a Dummy Load
	20.3 Bolometer
	20.4 Bolometer Method of Power Measurement
	20.5 Bolometer Element
	20.6 Bolometer Mount
	20.7 Measurement of Power by Means of a Bolometer Bridge
	20.8 Unbalanced Bolometer Bridge
	20.9 Self Balancing Bolometer Bridge
	20.10 Measurement of Large Amount of RF Power (Calorimetric Method)
	20.11 Measurement of Power on a Transmission Line
	20.12 Standing Wave Ratio Measurements
	20.13 Measurement of Standing Wave Ratio Using Directional Couplers
	Review Questions
	Multiple Choice Questions
	Practice Problems
	Further Reading
21. Control Systems
	21.1 Basic Control Action
	21.2 Defi nition (Terminology)
	21.3 On–Off Control Action
	21.4 Proportional Control Action
	21.5 Offset
	21.6 Basic Controller Confi guration
	21.7 Classifi cation of Controllers
	21.8 Electronic Controllers (EC)
	21.9 Analog Electronic Process Controllers
	21.10 Temperature Control using an Analog Electronic Controller
	21.11 Choice of Electronic Transmission Signal
	21.12 Digital Controllers
	21.13 Digital Process Controller
	21.14 Cascade Process Controller with Digital Controllers
	21.15 Programmable Logic Controller
	21.16 Distributed Control Systems
	Review Questions
	Further Reading
Answers to Objective Type Questions
Index