Electrolytes for Energy Storage Applications

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction to Energy Storage Systems
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Historical Developments: An Insight into How Energy Storage Began
	1.3 The Need for Energy Storage Systems
	1.4 Different Types of Energy Storage Systems
	1.5 Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems
		1.5.1 Lithium and Lithium-Ion Batteries
		1.5.2 Lead-Acid Batteries
		1.5.3 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
		1.5.4 Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Batteries
		1.5.5 Na-Ion Batteries
		1.5.6 Zinc-Ion Batteries (ZIBs)
		1.5.7 Zinc (Zn) – Air Batteries
		1.5.8 Aluminum (Al) – Ion Batteries
		1.5.9 Redox Flow Batteries (RFBs)
		1.5.10 Supercapacitor
		1.5.11 Differentiating Between Supercapacitors and Batteries?
	1.6 Components of a Commercial Li-Ion Cell system and Their Functionality
	1.7 Importance of Electrolyte in Energy Storage Systems
	1.8 Factors Affecting the Performance of Electrolytes
	1.9 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 2: Importance of Electrolytes and Their Selection for Energy Storage Systems
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Aqueous Electrolytes
	2.3 Organic Electrolytes
	2.4 Conventional Electrolytes
	2.5 Ionic Liquid Electrolytes
	2.6 Role of Additives in Electrolyte Performance
	2.7 Impedance of Electrolyte
	2.8 Band Structure of Solid and Polymer Electrolyte
	2.9 Influence of Electrolytes on the Charge/Discharge Curves
	2.10 Conclusions and Outlook
	References
Section I: Li-ion Batteries
	Chapter 3: Electrolytes and Additives for Li-ion Batteries
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Anode
		3.3 Cathode
		3.4 Electrolyte
			3.4.1 Non-Aqueous Electrolytes
			3.4.2 Aqueous Electrolytes
			3.4.3 Ionic Liquid Electrolytes
				3.4.3.1 Imidazolium-Based ILs
				3.4.3.2 Chain Quaternary Ammonium-Based ILs
				3.4.3.3 Pyrrolidinium and Piperidinium-Based ILs
				3.4.3.4 Other ILs
		3.5 Polymer Electrolytes
		3.6 Additives
			3.6.1 Selection of Electrolyte Additives
			3.6.2 Anode Additives
				3.6.2.1 Carbon Materials
				3.6.2.2 High-Energy Anode Materials
			3.6.3 Cathode Additives
				3.6.3.1 Layered Cathode Materials
				3.6.3.2 Li-Rich Cathodes
				3.6.3.3 Spinel Cathodes
				3.6.3.4 Olivine Cathodes
			3.6.4 Multifunctional Additives
				3.6.4.1 Redox Shuttles and Overcharging
				3.6.4.2 Flame Retardants
		3.7 Summary and Future Prospective
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 4: Designing a Battery’s Electrolyte through Simulation
		4.1 Introduction
			4.1.1 Electrolyte Solvation Structures
			4.1.2 Electrode-Electrolyte Interfacial Structures
			4.1.3 Atomic-Scale Electrolyte Structure
		4.2 A Brief Overview of Theoretical Methodology
			4.2.1 Density Functional Theory (DFT)
			4.2.2 Solvent Models (SM)
			4.2.3 Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics (AIMD)
			4.2.4 Molecular Dynamics
		4.3 Parameters and Key Properties
			4.3.1 Electronic Structure
				4.3.1.1 Electronic and Orbital Energies
				4.3.1.2 Electrochemical Stability Windows
				4.3.1.3 Electron and Charge Density Distributions
				4.3.1.4 Vibrational Spectra
				4.3.1.5 Band Structure and Density of State
			4.3.2 Solvation and Dissociation
				4.3.2.1 Dissociation Energy of the Electrolyte Salt
				4.3.2.2 Solvation and De-Solvation Energy
				4.3.2.3 Gibbs Free Energy and Redox Potential
				4.3.2.4 Coordination of Cation with Solvent Molecule
			4.3.3 Ion/Molecule Transport Kinetics (Diffusivity and Conductivity)
				4.3.3.1 Ionic Diffusion in Liquid Electrolytes
				4.3.3.2 Ionic Diffusion in Solid-State Electrolytes
		4.4 Designing Electrolyte and Future Outlook
		4.5 Challenges and Limitations
		4.6 Summary
		References
	Chapter 5: Solid-State Electrolytes for Batteries
		5.1 Overview of Solid Electrolyte
		5.2 Solid-State Electrolyte
		5.3 Ceramic-Based Solid-State Electrolytes
		5.4 Polymer-Based Solid Electrolytes
		5.5 Preparation Techniques
		5.6 Mechanism Involved
			5.6.1 Poole-Frenkel Conduction Model
			5.6.2 Space-Charge Limited Conduction Model
			5.6.3 Grain Boundary Limited Conduction Model
		5.7 Characterization Techniques
		5.8 Advantages and Challenges with Solid Electrolytes
		5.9 Solid-State Electrolyte for Batteries
		5.10 Future Scope of Solid Electrolytes and Solid-State Energy Storage Devices
		5.11 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 6: NASICON-type Li-ion Conducting Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Li-ion Batteries
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Crystal Structure
		6.3 Synthesis Methodology
		6.4 Doping
		6.5 Polymer Electrolytes
		6.6 Applications of LiM2(PO4)3 (M: Zr, Ti, and Ge)-Based Solid Electrolytes in Batteries
		6.7 Conclusions
		References
Section II: Beyond Li-ion Batteries
	Chapter 7: Electrolytes and Additives for Sodium-ion Battery Systems
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Importance of Additives in SIBs
		7.3 Aqueous Electrolytes
		7.4 Organic Aqueous Electrolytes
		7.5 Ionic Liquid Electrolytes
		7.6 Solid Electrolytes
		7.7 Hybrid Electrolytes
		7.8 Additives for Electrolytes in SIBs
			7.8.1 Some of the Commonly Used Additives for Electrolytes in SIBs Include
			7.8.2 Salt Additives
				7.8.2.1 Sodium Perchlorate (NaClO4)
				7.8.2.2 Sodium Bis (Fluoro Sulfonyl) Imide (NaFSI)
				7.8.2.3 Sodium Hexafluorophosphate (NaPF6)
				7.8.2.4 Sodium Trifluoromethane Sulfonate (NaOTf)
			7.8.3 Solvent Additives
				7.8.3.1 Dimethyl Carbonate (DMC)
				7.8.3.2 Diethyl Carbonate (DEC)
			7.8.4 Additives for Improvement of Anode Stability
				7.8.4.1 Sodium Oxalate
				7.8.4.2 Sodium Sulfite
				7.8.4.3 Alkyl Phosphonate – Bis(2,2,2-Trifluoroethyl) Methyl Phosphonate (TFMP)
				7.8.4.4 Sodium Nitrate
				7.8.4.5 Sodium Perchlorate
			7.8.5 Additives for Improvement of Cathode Stability
				7.8.5.1 Vinylene Carbonate (VC)
				7.8.5.2 Fluoroethylene Carbonate (FEC)
				7.8.5.3 Lithium Bis (Fluoro Sulfonyl) Imide (LiFSI)
				7.8.5.4 Tris (Trimethylsilyl) Phosphite (TMSPi)
			7.8.6 Safety-Related Additives
				7.8.6.1 Biphenyl (BP)
				7.8.6.2 Trimethyl Phosphate (TMP)
				7.8.6.3 Tri(2,2,2-Trifluoromethyl) Phosphite
				7.8.6.4 Methyl Nonafluorobutyl Ether (MFE)
		7.9 Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 8: Electrolytes and Additives for Zinc-ion Systems
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Basic Features of Zinc-Ion Electrolytes
			8.2.1 Salts, Solvents, and Additives
			8.2.2 Ion Diffusion and Transport Properties
			8.2.3 Chemical and Electrochemical Stability
		8.3 Electrolyte Strategies in Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries
			8.3.1 Electrolyte Additives
			8.3.2 New Electrolyte
		8.4 Compatibility between Electrolytes and Electrodes
			8.4.1 Compatibility between Electrolyte and Anode
				8.4.1.1 Interface with Low Water Content
				8.4.1.2 Functional Interfacial EDL Structure
				8.4.1.3 Electrolyte-Induced Regulation of Zinc Anode Surface Structure
			8.4.2 Compatibility between Electrolyte and Cathode
				8.4.2.1 Regulation of Cathode Dissolution
				8.4.2.2 Stimulation of Extra Redox Reaction
				8.4.2.3 Self-Adaptive Optimization of Cathode Materials
		8.5 Summary and Perspectives
			8.5.1 Fundamental Understanding of Zinc-Ion Electrolytes
				8.5.1.1 Structural Insight of Aqueous Electrolyte
				8.5.1.2 Relationship between Electrolyte and Electrochemical Performance
				8.5.1.3 Synergy between Experimental and Theoretical Analysis
			8.5.2 Practical Considerations for Zinc-Ion Electrolytes
				8.5.2.1 Electrolyte Consumption and Compensation
				8.5.2.2 Adaptability to Extreme Temperature
				8.5.2.3 Optimization of System Collocation
				8.5.2.4 Other Practical Concerns
		References
	Chapter 9: Electrolytes and Additives for Zinc-Air Systems
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Aqueous Electrolytes
			9.2.1 Aqueous Alkaline Electrolytes
				9.2.1.1 Electrolyte Additives for Aqueous Alkaline Electrolytes
			9.2.2 Near Neutral Aqueous Electrolytes
			9.2.3 Acidic Electrolytes
		9.3 Quasi-Solid-State Electrolytes
			9.3.1 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs)
		9.4 Conclusion and Outlook
		Acknowledgement
		References
	Chapter 10: Electrolytes for Rechargeable Aluminum Batteries: Challenges and Opportunities
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Post-Lithium Batteries
			10.2.1 Aluminum as an Anode
		10.3 Electrolytes for Aluminum Batteries
			10.3.1 Aqueous Electrolytes
				10.3.1.1 Water-in-Salt Electrolytes
				10.3.1.2 SEI on Aluminum Anode
			10.3.2 Non-Aqueous Liquid Electrolytes
				10.3.2.1 Organic Solutions
				10.3.2.2 Ionic Liquids
					10.3.2.2.1 Speciation in Chloroaluminate Electrolyte
					10.3.2.2.2 Lewis Acidity and Anode Capacity
					10.3.2.2.3 Deposit Morphology
					10.3.2.2.4 Candidate RTILs for Aluminum Batteries
					10.3.2.2.5 Chloride-Free and Less Corrosive Electrolytes
					10.3.2.2.6 Disadvantages of Ionic Liquid Electrolytes
				10.3.2.3 Deep Eutectics
				10.3.2.4 Inorganic Molten Salts
			10.3.3 Solid Electrolytes
				10.3.3.1 Ceramic Solid-State Electrolytes
				10.3.3.2 Polymer Electrolytes/Ionomers
		10.4 Summary and Outlook
		Abbreviations
		References
	Chapter 11: 2D MXene-Based Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Batteries
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 MXenes
		11.3 Applicability of MXene in Energy Storage Devices
			11.3.1 MXene Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Batteries
			11.3.2 All Solid-State Li-ion Batteries (Li-ASSB)
			11.3.3 For Zn-Ion Batteries
		11.4 Limitations in ASSBs
		11.5 Future Prospective
		11.6 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 12: Electrolytes for Redox Flow Batteries (RFBs)
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 The Preparation of Electrolytes
		12.3 Optimal Conditions for the Electrolytes Used in Redox Flow Batteries
		12.4 Ligands and Conducting Salts Used in Redox Flow Batteries
		12.5 Studies on Different Electrolytes in Redox Flow Batteries
			12.5.1 Iron-Based Redox Flow Batteries
			12.5.2 Vanadium-Based Redox Flow Battery (VRFB)
			12.5.3 Iron-Chromium Batteries
			12.5.4 Iron-Lead Batteries
			12.5.5 The Iron-Cadmium Redox Flow Battery
			12.5.6 Iron-Vanadium Redox Flow Battery
			12.5.7 Tin-Iron RFB (SnRFB)
			12.5.8 Zinc Bromide Redox Flow Battery (ZBRFB)
		12.6 Non-Aqueous Electrolytes for Redox Flow Batteries
		12.7 Low-Cost and Environmentally Friendly Electrolytes for Redox Flow Batteries
		12.8 Future Prospects
		12.9 Conclusions
		References
Section III: Supercapacitors
	Chapter 13: Aqueous Electrolytes for Electrochemical Supercapacitors
		13.1 Introduction to Energy Storage Devices
			13.1.1 Pioneer of Energy Storage Devices
		13.2 Classifications of Electrolytes
		13.3 Functioning of Electrolytes in Supercapacitors
		13.4 Challenges and Opportunities
			13.4.1 Challenges
			13.4.2 Opportunities
		13.5 Compatibility of Electrolytes in Electrochemical Supercapacitors Toward High Specific Capacitance
		13.6 Summary and Future Outlook of Electrolyte for Supercapacitors
		References
	Chapter 14: Non-Aqueous Electrolytes for Electrochemical Supercapacitors
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Aqueous Electrolytes
		14.3 Organic Electrolytes
		14.4 Ionic Liquid-Based Electrolytes
		14.5 (Quasi-) Solid-State Electrolytes
		14.6 Redox-Active Electrolytes
		14.7 Challenges and Future Outlook
		14.8 Summary
		References
	Chapter 15: Ionic Liquid Electrolytes for Electrochemical Supercapacitors
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Fundamentals of IL Electrolytes
			15.2.1 Terminology
			15.2.2 Electrochemical Potential Window
			15.2.3 Ionic Conductivity
			15.2.4 Thermal Stability
		15.3 Performance Under Extreme Conditions
		15.4 Types of IL Electrolytes
			15.4.1 Imidazolium ILs
			15.4.2 Pyrrolidinium ILs
			15.4.3 Sulfonium ILs
			15.4.4 Phosphonium ILs
			15.4.5 IL Mixtures
			15.4.6 IL/Organic Electrolyte Mixtures
		15.5 ILs as Self-Healing Materials
		15.6 Ionic Liquids Electrolyte/Active Electrode Material Interaction
		15.7 EDLC Based on IL Electrolytes
		15.8 Pseudocapacitor Based on IL Electrolytes
		15.9 Challenges and Future Motivation for IL Electrolytes
		15.10 Summary
		References
	Chapter 16: Electrolytes for Hybrid Supercapacitors
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Progress on Redox Additives in Aqueous Electrolyte
		16.3 Progress on Redox Additives in Organic Electrolytes
		16.4 Progress on Redox Additives in Ionic Liquid Electrolytes
		16.5 Progress on Redox Additives in Gel Electrolytes
		16.6 Lithium-Ion Hybrid Capacitor
		16.7 Sodium-Ion Hybrid Capacitor
		16.8 Potassium Ion Hybrid Capacitor
		16.9 Conclusions and Future Outlook
		References
	Chapter 17: Advanced Electrolytes for Electrochemical Supercapacitors
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Parameters for Designing Electrolytes for SCs
			17.2.1 Electrolyte Conductivity
			17.2.2 Electrochemical Stability
			17.2.3 Thermal Stability
			17.2.4 Solvent Effect
			17.2.5 Salt Effect
		17.3 Water-in-Salt (WIS) Electrolyte
		17.4 Research Progresses of Water-in-Salt Electrolytes
			17.4.1 Metal Salt-Based Water-in-Salt Electrolytes
				17.4.1.1 Single Salt System
				17.4.1.2 Double Salt System
				17.4.1.3 Water-in-Salt Electrolytes-Derived Electrolytes
				17.4.1.4 Aqueous/Non-Aqueous Electrolytes
			17.4.2 Macromolecular Crowding Electrolyte
		17.5 Working Mechanism of WIS
		17.6 Enhancement of the WIS Electrolytes in Supercapacitors Application
			17.6.1 Safety and Flexibility
			17.6.2 Operating Temperature Range
			17.6.3 Specific Capacitance
			17.6.4 Ionic Conductivity
		17.7 WIS-Based Electrolytes in Supercapacitors
		17.8 Conclusions
		17.9 Future Directions
		Abbreviations
		References
Index