ELECTROCHEMICAL REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR POLLUTED SOILS, SEDIMENTS AND GROUNDWATER......Page 4
CONTENTS......Page 8
PREFACE......Page 18
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 22
PART I Introduction and Basic Principles......Page 26
1.1. Introduction......Page 28
1.2. Electrochemical Technologies for Site Remediation......Page 29
1.3. Electrochemical Transport, Transfer, and Transformation Processes......Page 31
1.4. Electrochemical Removal of Inorganic Pollutants......Page 36
1.5. Electrochemical Removal of Organic Pollutants......Page 38
1.6. Electrochemical Removal of Contaminant Mixtures......Page 40
1.8. Electrokinetic Barriers for Pollution Containment......Page 42
1.9. Coupled (or Integrated) Electrochemical Remediation Technologies......Page 43
1.10. Mathematical Modeling of Electrochemical Remediation......Page 48
1.11. Economic and Regulatory Considerations......Page 49
1.12. Field Applications and Lessons Learned......Page 50
1.13. Future Directions......Page 52
References......Page 53
2.2. Overview......Page 54
2.3. Electrochemical Transport in Bulk Fluid......Page 55
2.4. Electrochemical Transport in Clays in the Direction of Applied Electric Field......Page 56
2.5. Electrochemical Transformations......Page 75
2.6. Summary......Page 85
References......Page 86
3.1. Introduction......Page 90
3.2. Soil–Fluid–Chemical System as Active Electrochemical System......Page 92
3.3. Generation of pH Gradient......Page 95
3.4. Change of Zeta Potential of Soil Particle Surfaces......Page 97
3.5. Change in Direction of Electroosmotic Flow......Page 101
3.6. Sorption and Desorption of Contaminants onto/from Soil Particle Surfaces......Page 104
3.7. Buffer Capacity of Soil......Page 107
3.8. Complexation......Page 108
3.9. Oxidation–Reduction (Redox) Reactions......Page 112
3.10. Interactions of Geochemical Processes......Page 114
3.11. Summary......Page 115
References......Page 116
PART II Remediation of Heavy Metals and Other Inorganic Pollutants......Page 120
4.1. Introduction......Page 122
4.2. Principle of EK Removal of Heavy Metals from Soils......Page 123
4.3. Heavy Metal and Soil Type......Page 124
4.4. Enhancement Methods......Page 136
4.5. Remediation of Mine Tailings, Ashes, Sediments, and Sludge......Page 141
4.6. Summary......Page 144
References......Page 145
5.1. Introduction......Page 152
5.2. Electrokinetic Localization of Radioactive Nuclide Pollution......Page 154
5.3. Electrokinetic Cleaning of Ground from Radioactive Nuclides......Page 157
References......Page 163
6.1. Introduction......Page 166
6.2. Pollution and Health Effects of Anionic Pollutants......Page 167
6.3. Removal of Anionic Pollutants by Electrokinetics......Page 168
6.4. Summary......Page 171
References......Page 172
7.1. Introduction......Page 174
7.2. Contaminated Sediment Treatment Options......Page 176
7.3. Electrokinetic Treatment of Sediments......Page 177
7.4. Case Study: Tests on Electrokinetic Remediation of Sea Harbor Sediments......Page 180
7.5. Summary......Page 197
References......Page 199
8.1. Introduction......Page 204
8.2. Materials and Methods......Page 206
8.3. Experimental Results......Page 207
8.4. Discussion......Page 212
Acknowledgments......Page 216
References......Page 217
PART III Remediation of Organic Pollutants......Page 220
9.1. Introduction......Page 222
9.2. Backgrounds......Page 223
9.3. Electrokinetic Removal of PAHs Using Facilitating Agents......Page 229
9.4. Summary......Page 238
References......Page 239
10.2. Electrokinetic Removal of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons......Page 244
10.3. Electrokinetic Removal of Chlorophenols......Page 248
10.4. Electrokinetic Removal of Chlorobenzenes......Page 252
References......Page 257
11.1. Introduction......Page 260
11.2. Electrokinetic Removal of Chlorinated Pesticides......Page 261
11.3. Surfactant-Enhanced Electrokinetic Remediation of Chlorinated Pesticides......Page 264
11.5. Summary......Page 271
References......Page 272
12.1. Introduction......Page 274
12.2. Herbicides......Page 275
12.3. Case Study......Page 277
Acknowledgments......Page 286
References......Page 287
13.1. Introduction......Page 290
13.2. Chemistry of Clay–Energetic Compound Complexes......Page 291
13.3. Remediation Strategies......Page 293
13.4. Electrokinetics to Enhance Remediation Strategies......Page 298
References......Page 304
PART IV Remediation of Mixed Contaminants......Page 310
14.1. Introduction......Page 312
14.2. General Principle for Mixed Metal Contaminants......Page 313
14.3. Representative Studies on Electrokinetic Remediation of Mixed Heavy Metals......Page 323
14.4. Specific Insight for Removal of Mixed Heavy Metals, Including Cr, As, and Hg......Page 331
References......Page 335
15.1. Challenge in Remediation of Mixed Contaminated Soils......Page 340
15.2. Application of Electrokinetic Phenomena to the Removal of Organic and Inorganic Contaminants from Soils......Page 343
15.3. Summary......Page 353
References......Page 354
PART V Electrokinetic Barriers......Page 358
16.1. Introduction......Page 360
16.2. History of Electrokinetic Barrier Development......Page 364
16.3. Recent Studies......Page 365
16.4. Use With Other Technologies......Page 376
16.5. Summary......Page 378
References......Page 379
17.1. Introduction......Page 382
17.2. Application in the Field......Page 383
17.3. Case Study......Page 384
17.4. Summary......Page 390
Reference......Page 391
PART VI Integrated (Coupled) Technologies......Page 392
18.1. Introduction......Page 394
18.2. Principles and Fundamental Interactions of Electrobioremediation......Page 396
18.3. Research Needs......Page 404
References......Page 405
19.1. Bioremediation of Soils......Page 414
19.2. Combination of Electrokinetics and Bioremediation......Page 420
19.3. Practical Considerations and Limitations for Coupled Bio-Electro Processes......Page 431
Acknowledgments......Page 434
References......Page 435
20.1. Soil Contamination: Legislation......Page 442
20.2. What is the Limit of the Remediation? Soil Recovery......Page 444
20.3. Influence of the Electrokinetic Technology on Soil Properties......Page 446
20.4. Phytoremediation......Page 449
20.5. Use of the Electrokinetic Process to Improve Phytoremediation......Page 453
20.6. Phytoremediation after Electrokinetic Process......Page 455
20.7. Summary......Page 457
References......Page 458
21.2. General Principles......Page 464
21.3. Representative Studies......Page 472
21.4. Electrokinetic Treatment Coupled with Injection of Nanomaterials......Page 484
References......Page 490
22.1. Oxidants for Soil Remediation......Page 498
22.2. Production of Oxidants......Page 504
22.3. Distribution of Oxidants......Page 506
References......Page 507
23.1. Introduction......Page 508
23.2. Design of Reactive Barrier in the EK–PRB Process......Page 511
23.3. Implementation of EK–PRB to Polluted Soil......Page 515
23.4. Perspectives......Page 524
References......Page 525
24.2. Thermal Principles......Page 530
24.3. Physical and Chemical Principles......Page 540
24.4. Fluid and Energy Transport......Page 542
24.5. Hydraulic Principles......Page 546
24.6. Biological Processes at Elevated Temperatures......Page 547
24.7. Summary......Page 556
References......Page 557
PART VII Mathematical Modeling......Page 562
25.1. Introduction......Page 564
25.2. One-Dimensional EKR Simple Model......Page 566
25.3. Two-Dimensional Model......Page 576
Notation......Page 584
References......Page 586
26.1. Introduction......Page 588
26.3. Direct and Coupled Flow and Transport of Ions......Page 590
26.4. Model Development......Page 594
26.5. Model Validation......Page 596
26.6. Field Application Scenarios......Page 597
26.7. Summary......Page 602
References......Page 603
PART VIII Economic and Regulatory Considerations......Page 606
27.1. Introduction......Page 608
27.2. Cost Factors......Page 609
27.4. Summary......Page 611
References......Page 612
28.1. Introduction......Page 614
28.2. Overview of Environmental Regulation in the USA......Page 615
28.3. Regulatory Considerations for Implementing Electrokinetic Remediation......Page 620
References......Page 630
PART IX Field Applications and Performance Assessment......Page 632
29.1. Introduction......Page 634
29.2. Description of Processes Involved in Field Applications......Page 635
29.3. Electrokinetic Remediation Setup in Field Applications......Page 640
29.4. Outcome of Field-Scale Experiments......Page 641
29.5. Factors that Limit the Applicability of Electrokinetic Technology......Page 644
29.6. Prerequisites and Site Information Needed......Page 646
29.8. Summary......Page 647
References......Page 648
30.1. Introduction......Page 650
30.2. Field Implementation Considerations......Page 652
30.3. Case Studies......Page 657
30.4. Summary and Future Activities......Page 668
References......Page 669
31.2. Electrokinetic (EK) Extraction System......Page 672
31.3. Permeable Reactive Barrier (PRB) System......Page 673
31.4. Combined System of Electrokinetics and Permeable Reactive Barrier......Page 675
31.5. Field Application......Page 676
31.6. Summary......Page 682
References......Page 683
32.1. Introduction......Page 686
32.2. Background on the Need for Remediation and the Duluth Project......Page 688
32.3. What is ECGO Technology?......Page 692
32.4. The Remediation of Minnesota Slip Sediments at the Erie Pier CDF in Duluth, Minnesota......Page 697
32.5. Summary......Page 719
References......Page 720
33.2. ER......Page 722
33.3. Investigation and Design of ER......Page 730
33.5. Summary......Page 742
INDEX......Page 744