Electricity Production from Renewables

Foreword by Filipe Faria da Silva
Foreword by João Abel Peças Lopes
Acknowledgments
About This Book
Contents
About the Author
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Introduction: The Power System
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 General Concept
		2.1 Fundamental Quantities
		2.2 Requirements
		2.3 Structure and Components
	3 Basic Options
		3.1 Alternating Current Versus Direct Current
		3.2 50 Hz Versus 60 Hz
		3.3 Single Phase Versus Three Phase
	4 Organization
		4.1 Generation
			4.1.1 Thermal Power Plants
			4.1.2 Hydropower Plants
			4.1.3 Wind Power Plants
			4.1.4 Solar Power Plants
		4.2 Transmission
		4.3 Distribution
		4.4 Retail
		4.5 Consumption
	5 Balancing Generation and Consumption
	6 Conclusions
2 AC Electrical Circuits for Non-electrical Engineers
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 AC Electrical Circuits
		2.1 The Sinusoidal Voltage
		2.2 Pure Resistive Circuit
		2.3 Pure Inductive Circuit
		2.4 Pure Capacitive Circuit
		2.5 The Need for Complex Numbers
		2.6 Review on Complex Numbers
		2.7 Complex Amplitudes to Solve AC Circuits
		2.8 Complex Impedance
		2.9 Application to Basic AC Circuits
		2.10 RLC Circuit
	3 Power in AC Circuits
		3.1 Active Power and Reactive Power
		3.2 Active Power and Reactive Power in the Basic AC Circuits
		3.3 Complex Power
		3.4 Power Factor Correction
	4 Balanced Three-Phase AC Circuits
		4.1 Three-Phase Systems
		4.2 Phase-To-Neutral Voltage and Phase-To-Phase Voltage
		4.3 Star Connection and Delta Connection
		4.4 Three-Phase Power in Balanced and Symmetrical Systems
	5 Per Unit (PU) System
	6 AC Circuit Application: The Induction Motor
		6.1 Basic Operating Principle
		6.2 Deriving the Equivalent Circuit
		6.3 Mechanical Power and Efficiency
		6.4 Rotor Angular Speed
		6.5 Operation as a Generator
	7 Conclusions
	8 Proposed Exercises
3 Economic Assessment of Renewable Energy Projects
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Utilization Factor and Capacity Factor
	3 Electricity Average Cost
		3.1 Annual Average Cost
		3.2 Discount Rate
		3.3 Levelized Cost Of Energy (LCOE)
			3.3.1 Discounted Cost Parcel 1—Investment Cost
			3.3.2 Discounted Cost Parcel 2—O&M Cost
			3.3.3 Discounted Electricity Production
		3.4 LCOE Simplified Model
	4 Economic Assessment Indexes
		4.1 NPV—Net Present Value
			4.1.1 NPV General Model
			4.1.2 NPV Simplified Model
		4.2 IRR—Internal Rate of Return
			4.2.1 IRR General Model
			4.2.2 IRR Simplified Model
			4.2.3 IRR Approximate Computation
		4.3 Payback Period
		4.4 Discounted Payback Period
		4.5 Return on Investment
	5 Conclusions
	6 Proposed Exercises
4 Solar Power
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Basic Concepts
		2.1 Some Definitions
		2.2 Performance Indexes
		2.3 PV System Equipment
		2.4 PV Cell Operating Principle
		2.5 A Note on PV Costs
	3 PV Performance Models
		3.1 Data Provided by Manufacturers in Datasheets
		3.2 Simplified Model—Fast Estimate (FE)
		3.3 Intermediate Model—1 Diode and 3 Parameters (1D + 3P)
		3.4 Detailed Model—1 Diode and 5 Parameters (1D + 5P)
	4 PV System Components
		4.1 MPPT—Maximum Power Point Tracker
		4.2 Inverter
			4.2.1 Inverter Configuration
			4.2.2 Inverter Types
			4.2.3 Inverter Efficiency
	5 Electricity Delivered to the Grid
		5.1 Input Data
		5.2 Output Annual Electrical Energy
	6 Improving the Efficiency of Conventional Technologies
		6.1 Solar Tracking Systems
		6.2 Floating PV
	7 PV Technologies
		7.1 First Generation—Crystalline Silicon Cells
		7.2 Second Generation—Thin Films
		7.3 Third Generation—Emerging Technologies
		7.4 Summary of PV Technologies Efficiencies
	8 Other Sun Power—Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
		8.1 Parabolic Troughs
		8.2 Solar Tower
	9 Conclusions
	10 Proposed Exercises
5 Wind Power
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Basic Concepts
		2.1 Power in the Wind
		2.2 Betz Limit
		2.3 Prandtl Law
	3 Wind Data Analysis
		3.1 Histogram
		3.2 Statistical Analysis
			3.2.1 Weibull Distribution
			3.2.2 Rayleigh Distribution
	4 The Power Curve
		4.1 Analytic Equations
		4.2 Power Coefficient—CP
	5 Electricity Production Estimates
		5.1 Complete Models
		5.2 Simplified Models
			5.2.1 Johnson’s Model
			5.2.2 Fast Estimate Model
	6 Wind Characteristics and Resources
		6.1 Wind Potential and Variation
		6.2 The Effect of Obstacles
		6.3 Wind Forecast
	7 Some Features of Modern WTG
		7.1 Wind Turbine Generator Components
		7.2 The Need for Variable Speed Operation
		7.3 Power Control
		7.4 Simple Analysis of Wind Turbines
	8 Conclusions
	9 Proposed Exercises
6 Wind Energy Conversion Equipment
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Double-Fed Induction Generator
		2.1 Operating Principle
		2.2 Main Equipment
		2.3 Equivalent Diagram
		2.4 Steady-State Model
		2.5 Operating Modes
		2.6 Introduction to Control
	3 Direct-Driven DC-Link Synchronous Generators
		3.1 Review on the Basic Working Principle of the Alternator
		3.2 Equipment General Description
		3.3 Operating Principle
		3.4 Steady-State Model
		3.5 Introduction to Control
		3.6 The Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)
	4 Conclusions
	5 Proposed Exercises
7 Offshore Wind Electrical Systems
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Collector System
		2.1 Topology Options
			2.1.1 Radial Design
			2.1.2 Single-Sided Ring Design
			2.1.3 Double-Sided Ring Design
			2.1.4 Star Design
			2.1.5 Single Return Design
			2.1.6 Double-Sided Half Ring Design
		2.2 Basic Concepts of Reliability
	3 Sizing AC Offshore Interconnection Cables
		3.1 The Reactive Power Problem
		3.2 Cables’ General Features
			3.2.1 Layers
			3.2.2 Configuration
			3.2.3 Insulation
		3.3 Choosing the Cross-Section
		3.4 A Note on DC Cables
	4 Electrical Losses
		4.1 Temperature-Dependent Losses Model
		4.2 The Classical Load Flow Model
	5 Connection to Shore: The AC Versus DC Option
		5.1 High-Voltage Alternate Current (HVAC)
		5.2 High-Voltage Direct Current–Line Commutated Converters (HVDC-LCC)
		5.3 High-Voltage Direct Current–Voltage Source Converter (HVDC-VSC)
	6 Hydrogen Production from Offshore Wind
	7 Conclusions
	8 Proposed Exercises
8 Small Hydro Plants
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Flow Duration Curve
	3 Turbine Choice
		3.1 Turbine Types
		3.2 Turbine Efficiency
		3.3 Turbine Choice
	4 Electrical Energy Yield—Simplified Model
		4.1 One Single Turbine
		4.2 Two Equal Turbines
	5 Electrical Energy Yield—Introduction to the Detailed Model
		5.1 Computing the Output Power as a Function of the Flow
		5.2 Installed Capacity
		5.3 The Power Curve and Electrical Energy Yield
		5.4 The Two Turbine Generator Case
	6 Conclusions
	7 Proposed Exercises
9 Combined Heat and Power
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 CHP Overview
	3 CHP Technologies
		3.1 Internal Combustion Engines
		3.2 Gas Turbines
		3.3 Steam Turbines
		3.4 Micro-turbines
		3.5 Fuel Cells
	4 Heat Exchangers
		4.1 Types of Recuperators
		4.2 Log Mean Temperature Difference
	5 Technical and Economic Assessment
		5.1 Technical Assessment
		5.2 Economic Assessment—Fuel Variable Cost
	6 Conclusions
	7 Proposed Exercises