Electricity Decentralization in the European Union: Towards Zero Carbon and Energy Transition

Electricity Decentralization in the European Union
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
Introduction
1 Smart grids in the European Union
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Smart grid deployment and the impact on energy security
		1.2.1 Setting the scene
			1.2.1.1 The geopolitical context
			1.2.1.2 The institutional context
		1.2.2 Smart grids: a multivalent instrument50
		1.2.3 The operation of prosumer markets
		1.2.4 Smart grids and energy security106
			1.2.4.1 Sustainability prospects
				Advantages
				Risks and challenges ahead
			1.2.4.2 Strengthening supply security
				Advantages
				Risks and challenges ahead
			1.2.4.3 Affordability and competitiveness gains in prosumer markets
				Advantages
				Risks and challenges ahead
		1.2.5 Conclusion
	1.3 Smart grid regulation
		1.3.1 Smart metering: paving the way for smarter grids
			1.3.1.1 Background
			1.3.1.2 The EU legal basis
			1.3.1.3 Current status in Europe
			1.3.1.4 Toward regulatory policy recommendations
		1.3.2 Demand response
			1.3.2.1 Background
			1.3.2.2 The EU legal basis
			1.3.2.3 Current status in Europe
			1.3.2.4 Toward regulatory policy recommendations
		1.3.3 Electricity storage and electric vehicles
			1.3.3.1 Background
			1.3.3.2 The EU legal basis
			1.3.3.3 Current status in Europe
			1.3.3.4 Toward regulatory policy recommendations
	1.4 Social, environmental, and ethical issues of smart grids
		1.4.1 Introduction
		1.4.2 Smart grids: contributing to the EU collaborative economy
			1.4.2.1 The collaborative economy: a “Disruptive Innovation”
			1.4.2.2 The EU and the collaborative economy
			1.4.2.3 Smart grids: a platform for the collaborative economy
			1.4.2.4 Delivering social benefits in a collaborative economy
		1.4.3 Low-carbon transition pathways and smart grids
			1.4.3.1 Conceptualizing issues
			1.4.3.2 Smart grids within a circular economy
				The circular economy concept and the EU
				EU waste regulation: key principles for renewable energy and smart energy grids
				New concepts and principles to close the smart grid loop
		1.4.4 Digital technology, smart grids, and the law
			1.4.4.1 Background
			1.4.4.2 Smart grids: cybersecurity and privacy issues
			1.4.4.3 International and EU law
				Privacy and data protection
					Lawful processing
					Data minimization
					Data quality, retention, and accuracy
					Fair processing
					Data anonymization/pseudonymization
				Digital systems security
	1.5 Conclusion
2 Conceptualizing the energy transition in the European Union
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Progress on energy decentralization
3 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Belgium
	3.1 Smart grids and meters
	3.2 Electric vehicles
	3.3 Demand response
	3.4 Storage
	3.5 Interconnection
	3.6 Concerns about data protection
	3.7 Conclusions
4 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Greece
	4.1 Smart grids and meters
	4.2 Electric vehicles
	4.3 Demand response
	4.4 Storage
	4.5 Interconnection
	4.6 Concerns about data protection
5 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Spain
	5.1 Regulatory framework for the electricity market
	5.2 Smart grids and meters
	5.3 Electric vehicles
	5.4 Demand response
	5.5 Storage
	5.6 Interconnection
	5.7 Concerns about data protection
6 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Italy
	6.1 Regulatory framework for the electricity market
	6.2 Smart grids and meters
	6.3 Electric vehicles
	6.4 Demand response
	6.5 Storage
	6.6 Interconnection
	6.7 Concerns about data protection
8 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Poland
	8.1 General overview
	8.2 Energy profile
		8.2.1 Energy resources in Poland
			8.2.1.1 Coal resources
			8.2.1.2 Oil and gas resources
			8.2.1.3 Natural gas
		8.2.2 Energy transition and greenhouse gas emissions
			8.2.2.1 Energy Transition
			8.2.2.2 Greenhouse gas emissions
	8.3 Governance system: political decentralization and energy competences
	8.4 Electricity market
		8.4.1 Regulatory framework
			8.4.1.1 Energy Policy 2030 and 2050
			8.4.1.2 Energy Act of 10 April 1997
			8.4.1.3 The 2016 Act on Energy Efficiency
			8.4.1.4 The 2011 Geological and Mining Law
			8.4.1.5 The Polish Act on Renewable Energy Sources 2016 (as amended in 2018)
			8.4.1.6 The Tax Acts
			8.4.1.7 Other relevant laws
		8.4.2 Energy security dimension
	8.5 Renewable energy sources’ generation
	8.6 Smart grid and smart metering systems
	8.7 Electric vehicles and storage
		8.7.1 Legislation
		8.7.2 E-Buses
		8.7.3 Energy storage
	8.8 Data protection
	8.9 Demand response and energy efficiency
	8.10 Conclusion
9 Energy decentralization and energy transition in France
	9.1 General overview
		9.1.1 An overview on greenhouse gas emissions and renewable energy sources
		9.1.2 A general overview on the current status of smart energy systems
	9.2 Energy profile
		9.2.1 Market participants
		9.2.2 Production and consumption of energy
		9.2.3 Energy strategy
	9.3 Governance system
		9.3.1 Relevant institutions
			9.3.1.1 Ministry of Ecological and Solidarity Transition (Ministère de la Transition écologique et solidaire)
			9.3.1.2 French Environment & Energy Management Agency (Agence de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l\'Énergie)
			9.3.1.3 Association for Renewable Energy (Syndicat des énergies renouvelables)
			9.3.1.4 Energy Regulatory Commission (Commission de Régulation de l’Energie)
			9.3.1.5 Electricité de France
			9.3.1.6 French Transmission System Operator (Réseau de transport d\'électricité)
			9.3.1.7 French Distribution Grid Operator (L’Electricité en Réseau) (Enedis)
		9.3.2 Research and projects on smart grids
	9.4 Electricity market
		9.4.1 Regulatory framework
		9.4.2 Energy security dimension
	9.5 Smart metering systems
	9.6 Demand response
	9.7 Data protection
	9.8 Electric vehicles and storage
		9.8.1 Electric vehicles
		9.8.2 Storage
	9.9 Conclusions
10 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Finland
	10.1 General overview
		10.1.1 An overview on greenhouse gas emissions and renewable energy sources
		10.1.2 Current status of smart energy systems
	10.2 Energy profile
		10.2.1 Market participants
		10.2.2 Sources of energy
		10.2.3 Consumption of energy
		10.2.4 Energy strategy and European Union targets
	10.3 Governance system
		10.3.1 Relevant institutions
			10.3.1.1 The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment (TEM)
			10.3.1.2 The Ministry of the Environment (YM)
			10.3.1.3 The Ministry of Finance (VM)
			10.3.1.4 The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MMM)
			10.3.1.5 The Energy Authority (Energiavirasto)
			10.3.1.6 Business Finland
			10.3.1.7 Fingrid Oyj
			10.3.1.8 Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment
			10.3.1.9 Finnish Competition and Consumer Authority (KKV)
			10.3.1.10 Office of the Data Protection Ombudsman
		10.3.2 Research and projects on smart grids
			10.3.2.1 Smart Grid Working Group
			10.3.2.2 LEMENE Smart Grid Project
			10.3.2.3 MOTIVA OY Training Programme
	10.4 Electricity market
		10.4.1 Regulatory framework
			10.4.1.1 The Energy Market Act
			10.4.1.2 Subsidies and incentives
			10.4.1.3 Unbundling
		10.4.2 Energy security dimension
	10.5 Smart metering systems
	10.6 Demand response
	10.7 Data protection
	10.8 Electric vehicles and storage
		10.8.1 Electric vehicles
		10.8.2 Storage
	10.9 Conclusions
11 Energy decentralization and energy transition in the Republic of Ireland
	11.1 Overview
	11.2 Energy profile
		11.2.1 Energy mix
			11.2.1.1 Ireland’s targets
			11.2.1.2 Ireland’s energy mix
			11.2.1.3 Ireland’s progress against its targets
		11.2.2 Market and market players
			11.2.2.1 (Integrated) Single electricity market
			11.2.2.2 Market players
			11.2.2.3 Customer profile
		11.2.3 Transmission system
		11.2.4 Distribution system
	11.3 Governance system
		11.3.1 Energy strategy
		11.3.2 Integration of governance and energy strategy
			11.3.2.1 EirGrid (transmission system operator)
				Grid 25/Your Grid, Your Tomorrow/DS3 Programme
				Smart Wires collaboration
				Storage projects
				Power Off and Save
			11.3.2.2 ESB Networks (distribution system operator)
				Innovation Strategy
				FINESCE/FIWARE FP7 research project
				EvolvDSO
				Plan Grid EV
				RealValue
				Winter Peak
				EPRI International Smart Grid Demonstration Initiative
				Dingle project
				Smart Energy Services
			11.3.2.3 DCCAE
				Pilot microgeneration scheme
				Funding for energy research projects
			11.3.2.4 SEAI
				Administration of government funding schemes
				SEAI and IEA
				Tools and calculators
				Electric vehicle information hub
				Smart grid road map
		11.3.3 Reflections on the governance system
	11.4 Regulatory framework and the energy security dimension
		11.4.1 Regulatory framework
			11.4.1.1 Legislation pertaining to the electricity market
				The Electricity Regulation Act 1999
				The Electricity Regulation (Amendment) (Single Electricity Market) Act 2007
				The Energy Act 2016 (No. 12 of 2016)
				Climate Change and Low Carbon Development Act 2015
			11.4.1.2 Regulatory framework and the smart grid
				Integration of renewable energy sources
				Feed-in tariff schemes
				Public bodies
				Heating and cooling schemes
				Transportation schemes
			11.4.1.3 Reflections on the regulatory framework
		11.4.2 Energy security dimension
	11.5 Smart metering scheme
		11.5.1 The Irish National Smart Metering Programme
		11.5.2 Smart Metering Regulatory Framework
	11.6 Demand response
		11.6.1 Role of the transmission system operator
			11.6.1.1 Demand response/demand-side management schemes
				STAR
				Powersave
			11.6.1.2 Demand side unities
			11.6.1.3 Balancing services
			11.6.1.4 Capacity auction market
		11.6.2 Role of the distribution system operator
		11.6.3 Smart meters, demand response, and the smart grid
	11.7 Data protection
	11.8 Electric vehicles and electricity storage
		11.8.1 Electric vehicles
		11.8.2 Electricity storage
	11.9 Conclusions
12 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Estonia
	12.1 Energy profile
		12.1.1 Energy dependency
		12.1.2 Renewable energy production
		12.1.3 Predictions for the demand in renewable energy
		12.1.4 Gas production
		12.1.5 Interconnection lines with Estonia’s neighbors
			12.1.5.1 EstLink projects
			12.1.5.2 Estonia–Latvia and Estonia–Russia electricity landlines
			12.1.5.3 Estonia–Russia and Estonia–Latvia gas pipelines
				Balticconnector project
	12.2 Governance system
		12.2.1 Relevant institutions in the energy sector
			12.2.1.1 Legislative power
			12.2.1.2 Government
			12.2.1.3 Regulators and agencies
			12.2.1.4 Market participants with administrative functions
		12.2.2 Tariff structures
			12.2.2.1 Tariff structures and setting prices for energy products
			12.2.2.2 Levies and tolls
		12.2.3 Proposals to save energy
		12.2.4 General planning in the energy sector
			12.2.4.1 Security of supply
		12.2.5 Transmission and distribution network services
		12.2.6 Planned structural reforms in the electricity sector
	12.3 Energy regulatory framework
		12.3.1 Interconnection
		12.3.2 Organisation of the Estonian energy market
			12.3.2.1 Operation market
	12.4 Smart homes/smart meters37
		12.4.1 Estonia’s legislative portfolio related to smart metering systems
		12.4.2 Energy security considerations: interplay between Estonian policies and policies issued by the European Commission41
	12.5 Data protection
	12.6 Electric vehicles
		12.6.1 Market penetration of electric vehicles
	12.7 Demand response
	12.8 Conclusions
13 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Slovenia
	13.1 Slovenia
		13.1.1 Energy profile
		13.1.2 Energy mix in Slovenia
			13.1.2.1 Electricity
			13.1.2.2 Natural gas
			13.1.2.3 Transmission system operator
			13.1.2.4 Distribution system operator
		13.1.3 Governance system: support schemes and selection bases
			13.1.3.1 Deficit in wind power plants
		13.1.4 Electricity market
			13.1.4.1 Regulatory framework
			13.1.4.2 Energy security dimension
		13.1.5 Smart metering systems
		13.1.6 Demand response
		13.1.7 Data protection
			13.1.7.1 Cyber security
		13.1.8 Electric vehicles and storage
			13.1.8.1 Electric vehicles
			13.1.8.2 Storage
	13.2 Conclusions
14 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Croatia
	14.1 General overview
	14.2 Energy profile
		14.2.1 Energy mix in Croatia
			14.2.1.1 Natural gas
		14.2.2 Transmission system operator
	14.3 Governance system
		14.3.1 Relevant institutions
			14.3.1.1 Central government: Directorate-General for Energy
	14.4 Electricity market
		14.4.1 Regulatory framework
		14.4.2 Energy security dimension
		14.4.3 Renewable energy
	14.5 Smart metering systems
	14.6 Demand response
	14.7 Data protection
	14.8 Vehicles and storage
		14.8.1 Electric vehicles
		14.8.2 Storage
	14.9 Conclusion
15 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Austria
	15.1 Energy profile
	15.2 Governance system
	15.3 Electricity market
		15.3.1 Transmission system operators
		15.3.2 Distribution system operators
		15.3.3 Supply
		15.3.4 Ownership
	15.4 Smart metering systems
		15.4.1 Overview
		15.4.2 Landis+Gyr projects
		15.4.3 Other projects
		15.4.4 Applicability
		15.4.5 Pricing
		15.4.6 Data concerns
		15.4.7 Direct load control
		15.4.8 Prosumers
	15.5 Data protection
		15.5.1 Current law
		15.5.2 Smart grids
			15.5.2.1 Security
			15.5.2.2 Privacy
		15.5.3 Challenges
	15.6 Demand response
		15.6.1 Mechanisms
		15.6.2 EU review
			15.6.2.1 Lessons learned
			15.6.2.2 Recommendations
	15.7 Electric vehicles
		15.7.1 Overview
		15.7.2 Taxation
	15.8 Storage
	15.9 Conclusion
16 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Luxembourg
	16.1 Energy profile
		16.1.1 Renewable energy
		16.1.2 Future
		16.1.3 Energy security
			16.1.3.1 Oil
			16.1.3.2 Gas
	16.2 Governance system
	16.3 Electricity market
		16.3.1 Overview
		16.3.2 Wholesale markets
		16.3.3 Retail markets
	16.4 Smart metering systems
	16.5 Demand response
	16.6 Data protection
	16.7 Electric vehicles
		16.7.1 Rollout
		16.7.2 Reform
	16.8 Storage
	16.9 Conclusion
17 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Denmark
	17.1 General overview
	17.2 Energy profile
		17.2.1 Brief history of Denmark’s energy policy
		17.2.2 Energy profile—electrical energy
			17.2.2.1 Renewable energy
			17.2.2.2 Consumption
		17.2.3 Highlighted challenges
			17.2.3.1 Large financial commitments
			17.2.3.2 Need for deregulation to foster modernization and funding of the energy system
			17.2.3.3 Proliferation of renewable energy sources is pushing the grid capacity
			17.2.3.4 Decentralization of energy policy is required
	17.3 Governance system
		17.3.1 Legislation
		17.3.2 Authorities
		17.3.3 National and regional transmission
		17.3.4 Public service obligation and smart metering
		17.3.5 Interstate cooperation
	17.4 Electricity market
		17.4.1 Regulatory framework
			17.4.1.1 Regulated and nonregulated activities
			17.4.1.2 Status of unbundling
			17.4.1.3 Tariffs
			17.4.1.4 Incentives
		17.4.2 Energy security dimension
			17.4.2.1 Renewable energies in the grid
			17.4.2.2 Energy trading and cross-border relations
	17.5 Smart metering systems
		17.5.1 Smart meter penetration
	17.6 Demand response
	17.7 Data protection
		17.7.1 Digitalization to promote smart grids
		17.7.2 Danish data protection and smart meters
		17.7.3 Consumer safeguarding
		17.7.4 Concerns of smart meters
	17.8 Electric vehicles and storage
		17.8.1 Electric vehicles
			17.8.1.1 Regulatory improvements and incentives
			17.8.1.2 Research in electric vehicles
			17.8.1.3 EU-wide measure to promote electric vehicles nationally
		17.8.2 Storage
	17.9 Conclusion
18 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Sweden
	18.1 General overview
	18.2 Energy profile
		18.2.1 Electricity
			18.2.1.1 Electricity transmission and distribution
		18.2.2 Consumption
		18.2.3 Challenges
		18.2.4 Smart grid’s current status
	18.3 Governance system
	18.4 Electricity market
		18.4.1 Electricity trade
		18.4.2 Regulatory framework
			18.4.2.1 Tax regulation mechanisms
		18.4.3 Green certificates
			18.4.3.1 How the system works
		18.4.4 Distributed electricity production: solar
		18.4.5 Distributed electricity production: other
		18.4.6 Energy security dimension
	18.5 Smart metering systems
	18.6 Demand response
		18.6.1 Explicit demand response
		18.6.2 Implicit demand response
	18.7 Data protection
		18.7.1 Information security
	18.8 Electric vehicles and storage
		18.8.1 Electric vehicles
		18.8.2 Storage
	18.9 Conclusion
19 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Hungary
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Hungary’s electricity market
		19.2.1 Key figures concerning energy and electricity in Hungary
		19.2.2 Key characteristics and structure of Hungary’s electricity market
		19.2.3 Policy responsibility and regulation
		19.2.4 Geopolitical considerations
	19.3 How “smart” is Hungary’s electricity system?
		19.3.1 Research and development—investments and funding
		19.3.2 Smart grids
		19.3.3 Smart metering
		19.3.4 Demand-side policies/demand response
		19.3.5 Self-generation
		19.3.6 Electric vehicles
		19.3.7 Storage
		19.3.8 Data privacy and protection considerations
	19.4 Conclusion
		19.4.1 Recommendations
20 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Cyprus
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 The smart grid: a vehicle to a more sustainable energy system
	20.3 Cyprus electricity market
		20.3.1 Key players
		20.3.2 Legal and regulatory framework
		20.3.3 Liberalization of the market and the status of unbundling in the country
		20.3.4 Energy security dimension
		20.3.5 Electricity interconnections
	20.4 Smart metering systems
	20.5 Demand response
	20.6 Data protection
		20.6.1 Current legal framework
		20.6.2 Third-party control
		20.6.3 The effects of smart metering on the current legal framework
		20.6.4 Consumer protection
		20.6.5 Protection from cyberattacks
	20.7 Electric vehicles and storage
		20.7.1 Electric vehicles
		20.7.2 Storage
	20.8 Conclusions and recommendations
21 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Lithuania
	21.1 Introduction: Lithuania, a population in major decline
	21.2 The Lithuanian electrical grid
		21.2.1 Setting the scene
		21.2.2 Energy governance and smart grid optimization
		21.2.3 Proactive consumer participation
		21.2.4 Support schemes
		21.2.5 LitGrid—the transmission system operator
	21.3 Achieving energy democratization
	21.4 Smart metering systems
	21.5 Demand response
	21.6 Cross-border relations and power grid synchronization
	21.7 Data protection in smart grids
	21.8 Electric vehicles and storage
		21.8.1 Electric vehicles
			21.8.1.1 Electric vehicle support schemes
			21.8.1.2 EU-wide measure to promote electric vehicles nationally
		21.8.2 Storage
	21.9 Conclusion
22 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Romania
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Romania’s electricity market
		22.2.1 Key figures concerning energy and electricity
		22.2.2 Key characteristics and structure of Romania’s electricity market
		22.2.3 Policy and regulatory responsibility
		22.2.4 Other considerations
	22.3 How “Smart” is Romania’s grid?
		22.3.1 Smart grid investment and research and development
		22.3.2 RES electricity generation and self-generation
		22.3.3 Smart metering
		22.3.4 Zero- and low-emissions mobility
		22.3.5 Storage
		22.3.6 Demand response
		22.3.7 Additional “smart” solutions
		22.3.8 Cyber-security, privacy, and data protection
	22.4 Conclusion
		22.4.1 Recommendations
23 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Malta
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Energy mix
	23.3 Laws and institutions relevant in the decarbonization efforts in Malta
	23.4 Electricity in Malta and energy competences
		23.4.1 Electricity interconnections and distribution
		23.4.2 Political decentralization and energy competences
	23.5 Renewable energy generation
	23.6 Smart grid and smart metering systems
	23.7 Electric vehicles and storage
	23.8 Data protection
	23.9 Demand response and energy efficiency
		23.9.1 Energy efficiency
		23.9.2 Demand response
	23.10 Conclusion
24 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Slovakia
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Energy profile
		24.2.1 Overview of the Slovakian energy market
		24.2.2 Electricity market
	24.3 Decentralization efforts: where does Slovakia stand?
	24.4 Smart metering systems
	24.5 Electric mobility
	24.6 Demand response
	24.7 Electricity storage
	24.8 Data protection
	24.9 Conclusions and recommendations
		24.9.1 Smart grids
		24.9.2 Electric vehicles
		24.9.3 Demand response
		24.9.4 Storage
		24.9.5 Data protection
25 Energy decentralization and energy transition in the Czech Republic
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Overview of Czechia’s electricity market
		25.2.1 Key figures of Czechia\'s energy sector
		25.2.2 Key aspects of the electricity sector
	25.3 Toward a decentralized and smart electricity sector
		25.3.1 Interconnection
		25.3.2 Consumer’s empowerment
		25.3.3 Smartening of the electricity grid
			25.3.3.1 Smart meters
			25.3.3.2 Storage
			25.3.3.3 Demand response
			25.3.3.4 Electric vehicles
			25.3.3.5 Privacy, data protection, and cyber-security issues
	25.4 Conclusions and recommendations
26 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Latvia
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Energy, electricity, and smart grids in Latvia: developments and concerns
		26.2.1 Latvia’s electricity market
			26.2.1.1 Key figures and statistics on energy and electricity in Latvia
			26.2.1.2 Characteristics and structure of Latvia’s electricity market
			26.2.1.3 Energy security
		26.2.2 How smart is Latvia’s electricity system?
			26.2.2.1 Examination of whether Latvian policy and legislation promotes decentralization
				Self-generation
				Investment and research and development
				Smart meters
				Electric vehicles
				Demand response
				Electricity storage
			26.2.2.2 Data protection and cybersecurity concerns
	26.3 Conclusion and recommendations
27 Energy decentralization and energy transition in Portugal
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 Energy profile
		27.2.1 Overview of Portugal’s energy market
			27.2.1.1 Energy production
			27.2.1.2 Energy consumption
			27.2.1.3 Energy supply
			27.2.1.4 Electricity generation
		27.2.2 Electricity market
			27.2.2.1 Key characteristics
			27.2.2.2 Transmission and distribution
		27.2.3 Place in the market for different energy sources
	27.3 The liberalization of the Portuguese electricity market
	27.4 Regulatory framework
		27.4.1 Regulators
		27.4.2 Regulated activities
	27.5 Smart metering systems
	27.6 Electric mobility
	27.7 Demand response
		27.7.1 Control of heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems in public buildings
		27.7.2 Control of HVAC loads in banks
		27.7.3 Control of industrial loads
		27.7.4 EDP Distribuição pilots
	27.8 Electric storage
	27.9 Data protection
	27.10 Portugal’s electricity interconnections within the European Union
	27.11 Conclusions and recommendations
28 Energy decentralization and energy transition in the United Kingdom
	28.1 Overview
	28.2 Energy profile
		28.2.1 Energy mix
			28.2.1.1 United Kingdom’s targets
			28.2.1.2 United Kingdom’s energy mix
			28.2.1.3 United Kingdom’s progression against its targets
		28.2.2 Market and market players
			28.2.2.1 Market
			28.2.2.2 Market players
				Great Britain
				Northern Ireland
			28.2.2.3 Customer profile and consumption trends
				Great Britain
			28.2.2.4 Northern Ireland
		28.2.3 Transmission system
			28.2.3.1 Great Britain
			28.2.3.2 Northern Ireland
		28.2.4 Distribution system
	28.3 Governance system
		28.3.1 Energy strategy
			28.3.1.1 Great Britain
			28.3.1.2 Northern Ireland
		28.3.2 Integration of governance and energy strategy
	28.4 Regulatory framework and energy security
		28.4.1 Regulatory framework
			28.4.1.1 Legislation pertaining to the electricity market
			28.4.1.2 Regulatory framework and the smart grid
				Integration of renewable energy sources
				Incentive schemes (feed-in tariffs and others)
				Heating and Cooling
				Transport
			28.4.1.3 Reflections on the regulatory framework
		28.4.2 Energy security dimension
	28.5 Smart metering systems
	28.6 Demand response
		28.6.1 Great Britain
			28.6.1.1 Demand response market players
			28.6.1.2 Balancing services
				Balancing mechanism
				Reserve services/frequency response
				Capacity market
		28.6.2 Northern Ireland
			28.6.2.1 Demand response market players
			28.6.2.2 Capacity market
		28.6.3 Reflections on demand response
	28.7 Data protection
	28.8 Electric vehicles and energy storage
		28.8.1 Electric vehicles
		28.8.2 Energy storage
	28.9 Conclusion
29 Innovative finance for sustainable energy
	29.1 Introduction and methodology
	29.2 Decentralized energy: archetype business models and barriers
		29.2.1 A generic value network for smart grids
		29.2.2 The EU paradigm—EU project WiseGRID
		29.2.3 Analysis of archetype business models for a decentralized smart grid
			29.2.3.1 Electric vehicles: exploiting the integration of electric vehicles in the grid
			29.2.3.2 Demand response: supply–demand balancing by means of implicit demand response events
			29.2.3.3 Storage: prosumer-driven energy storage integration
			29.2.3.4 Archetype business model for exploiting prosumers flexibility—the role of a virtual power plant
Index