Electrical Technology Electrical Fundamentals Vol 1

Cover
Dedication
Preface
Contents
Part A: Electrical Fundamentals
	1:
Systems of Units
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Scientific Notation
		1.3 Fundamental and Derived Units
			1.3.1 Fundamental Units
			1.3.2 Derived Units
		1.4 Standards and Units
		1.5 Systems of Units
		1.6 The SI System of Units
		1.7 Importance of SI System
		1.8 Definitions
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	2:
Electrons in Action
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Conduction in Solids
		2.3 Bonding in Atoms
		2.4 Energy Bands
		2.5 Electrons in Action
		2.6 Direction of Current Flow
		2.7 Diffusion Current Momentarily
		2.8 Drift Velocity
		2.9 The Nature of Electric Current
		2.10 Effects of Electricity
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	3:
Electric Circuit
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Electric Circuit
		3.3 Current
		3.4 Electromotive Force
		3.5 Reference Zero
		3.6 Safety Precautions While Handling Electric Circuits
		3.7 Insulators
		3.8 Semiconductors
		3.9 Conductors
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	4:
Simple d.c. Circuits
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 The Basic Circuit
		4.3 Resistors
		4.4 Resistivity (Specific Resistance)
		4.5 Types of Resistors
			4.5.1 Fixed Resistors
			4.5.2 Carbon-composition Resistors
			4.5.3 Film-type Resistors
			4.5.4 Wire-wound Resistors
		4.6 Resistor Tolerance and Wattage
		4.7 Ohm’s Law
		4.8 Lumped Resistance and Distributed Resistance
		4.9 Leakage Resistance
		4.10 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
		4.11 Zero Ohm Resistors
		4.12 Chip Resistors
		4.13 Resistor Networks
		4.14 Simulated Resistors
		4.15 Adjustable Resistors
		4.16 Variable Resistors
		4.17 Types of Electric Circuits
		4.18 Resistances in Series
		4.19 Voltage Division Formula
		4.20 Dominant Resistance
		4.21 Resistors in Parallel
		4.22 Current Division Formula
		4.23 Dominant Resistance
		4.24 Series-Parallel (Complex) Circuits
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	5:
Networks (d.c.)
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Ohm’s Law
		5.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws
		5.4 Voltage Drop and Polarity
		5.5 Equipotential Points
		5.6 The Bridge Network
		5.7 Networks
		5.8 Superposition Theorem
		5.9 Voltage and Current Sources
		5.10 Dependent Voltage Sources
		5.11 Millman’s Theorem
		5.12 Thevenin’s Theorem
		5.13 Thevenizing a
Circuit
		5.14 Norton’s Theorem
		5.15 Nortonizing a Circuit
		5.16 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
		5.17 Efficiency
		5.18 Δ⇆Y Transformation
		5.19 Balanced Networks
		5.20 Network Reduction
		5.21 Mesh Currents
		5.22 Node-Voltages
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	6:
Mesh-Current and Node-Voltage Analysis
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Matrices and Determinants
			6.2.1 Matrix Arithmetic
			6.2.2 Determinants
			6.2.3 Solution of Simultaneous Equations Using Determinants
			6.2.4 Gauss Elimination Technique
		6.3 Network Analysis by Mesh Current
		6.4 Network Analysis by Node-Pair Voltages
		6.5 The Resistance Matrix
		6.6 The Conductance Matrix
		6.7 The Super Mesh
		6.8 The Super Node
		6.9 Nodal Analysis vs Mesh Analysis—A Comparison
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	7:
Electrochemical Action
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Primary Cells
		7.3 Electrolysis
			7.3.1 Electrolysis of Water
		7.4 Faraday’s Laws
			7.4.1 Electroplating
		7.5 Simple Voltaic Cell
		7.6 E.M.F. of a Cell
		7.7 Local Action
		7.8 Polarization
		7.9 Internal Resistance
		7.10 Characteristics of a Good Cell
		7.11 The Leclanche Cell
		7.12 The Dry Cell
		7.13 Secondary Batteries/Cells
		7.14 Elements of Secondary Cells
		7.15 The Electrolyte
		7.16 Capacity of Cells
		7.17 Internal Resistance of Secondary Cells
		7.18 Makeup of Cells
		7.19 Charging and Discharging of Lead-Acid Secondary Batteries
		7.20 Constant Current Charging
		7.21 Constant Voltage Charging
		7.22 Efficiencies of a Cell
		7.23 Faults
		7.24 Alkaline Cells
		7.25 Nife Nickel Cadmium Alkaline Cell
		7.26 Mercury Cell
		7.27 Silver-Oxide Cell
		7.28 Grouping of Cells
			7.28.1 Cells in Series
			7.28.2 Cells in Parallel
			7.28.3 Cells in Series Parallel
		7.29 Grouping Cells for Maximum Current
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	8:
Electromagnetism
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Attraction and Repulsion
		8.3 The Inverse Square Law
		8.4 Lines of Force
		8.5 Magnetic Flux
		8.6 Permeability
		8.7 Permeability (B–H) Curves
		8.8 The Domain Theory of Magnetism
		8.9 Electromagnetism
		8.10 Direction of Magnetic Field
		8.11 Magnetizing Force of Electromagnetic Fields
		8.12 Indicating the Direction of Current Flow
		8.13 Rule of Direction
		8.14 Electrodynamic Forces
		8.15 Forces between Magnet Poles
		8.16 Magnetic Moment
			8.16.1 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
		8.17 Flux Density of a Solenoid
		8.18 Magnetic Circuit
			8.18.1 Magnetomotive Force
			8.18.2 Flux Density
			8.18.3 Reluctance
			8.18.4 Magnetic Reluctance and Electrical Resistance
			8.18.5 Comparison of Magnetic Circuit and Electric Circuit
			8.18.6 Application of Ohm’s Law to the
Magnetic Circuit
		8.19 Magnetic Induction
			8.19.1 Direction of Induced e.m.f.
			8.19.2 Magnitude of Induced e.m.f.
		8.20 Magnetic Shields
		8.21 Reluctance
		8.22 Series Magnetic Circuits
		8.23 Parallel Magnetic Circuit
		8.24 Electromagnets
			8.24.1 Leakage Flux, Useful Flux
			8.24.2 Lifting Power of a Magnet
		8.25 Electromagnetic Relays
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	9:
Inductors
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Inductance
			9.2.1 Resistance
			9.2.2 Inductance
		9.3 Factors Determining Inductance
		9.4 Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field of an Inductor
		9.5 Losses in Inductors
		9.6 Toroids
		9.7 Inductor Types
		9.8 Time-Constant
		9.9 Graphical Derivation of the Transient Characteristics of an R-L Circuit
		9.10 Universal Time Constant
		9.11 Inductors in Series and Parallel
		9.12 Transient Behaviour
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	10:
Hysteresis
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 The B-H Curve
		10.3 Hysteresis Loop
		10.4 Hysteresis Loss
		10.5 Determination of B-H Curve
			10.5.1 Ballistic Galvanometer
Method
			10.5.2 Flux Metre Method
		10.6 Determination of Hysteresis Loop
		10.7 Hysteresis Loss
		10.8 Eddy Currents
		10.9 Eddy Current Losses
		10.10 Separation of Hysteresis and Eddy Current Losses
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	11:
Magnetic Materials
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Magnetic Materials
		11.3 Non-m agnetic Alloys
		11.4 Ferrites
		11.5 Magnetic Materials with Rectangular Hysteresis Loops
		11.6 Grain-Oriented Magnetic Material
		11.7 Permanent Magnets
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	12:
Electrostatics
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Electrification by Friction
		12.3 Application of Electron Theory
		12.4 Coulomb’s Law
		12.5 Permittivity
		12.6 Electrostatic Induction
		12.7 The Gold-Leaf Electroscope
			12.7.1 Proof Planes
			12.7.2 Charging By Induction
			12.7.3 Distribution of Charge
		12.8 Electric Fields
		12.9 Electric Flux
		12.10 Potential
		12.11 Equipotential Lines
		12.12 Gauss’s Law
		12.13 Dielectric Strength
		12.14 The Electric Field Due to a Line of Charge
		12.15 The Electric Field Due to a Charged Disk
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	13:
Capacitors and d.c. Transients
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Capacitance
		13.3 Capacitor Action
		13.4 Permittivity
		13.5 Factors Determining Capacitance
		13.6 Energy Stored in the Electric Field between the Capacitor Plates
		13.7 Power Factor (Capacitors)
		13.8 Types of Capacitors
			13.8.1 Air Capacitors
			13.8.2 Mica Capacitors
			13.8.3 Paper C
apacitors
			13.8.4 Polyester Film Capacitors
			13.8.5 Ceramic Capacitors
			13.8.6 Electrolytic Capacitors
			13.8.7 Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors
			13.8.8 Variable Capacitors
		13.9 Capacitor Colourcode
		13.10. Time Constant
		13.11 Graphical Derivation of the Transient Characteristics of an R-C Circuit
		13.12 Universal Time Constant
		13.13 Connecting Capacitors in Series
		13.14 Connecting Capacitors in Parallel
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	14:
Dielectric Materials
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Dielectric Materials
		14.3 Permittivity (Dielectric Constant)
		14.4 Power Factor
		14.5 Insulation Resistance (Or Insulance)
		14.6 Dielectric Absorption
		14.7 Dielectric Strength
		14.8 Thermal Effects
		14.9 Loss Angle
			14.9.1 Series Representation
			14.9.2 Parallel Representation
		14.10 Dielectric Materials (General)
			14.10.1 Gases
			14.10.2 Non-metallic Liquids
			14.10.3 Pure Water
			14.10.4 Solid Insulating Materials
			14.10.5 Textiles
			14.10.6 Paper
			14.10.7 Natural Minerals
		14.11 The Dielectric Phenomenon
		14.12 Dielectric Breakdown
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	15:
Field Theory
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 The Electric Field
		15.3 Vectors
			15.3.1 Components of Vectors
			15.3.2 Multiplying Vectors
			15.3.3 Scalar Product
			15.3.4 Vector Product
		15.4 Electric Field Lines
		15.5 Field Plotting by Curvilinear Squares
		15.6 Effect of Fringing
		15.7 Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitator
		15.8 Capacitance of a Multiplate Capacitator
		15.9 Capacitance between Concentric Cylinders
		15.10 Dielectric
 Stress
		15.11 Concentric Cable Field Plotting
		15.12 Capacitance of an Isolated Twin Line
		15.13 Energy Stored in an Electric Field (Alternate Method)
		15.14 Induced E.M.F. and Inductance
			15.14.1 Skin Effect
		15.15 Inductance Due to Internal Linkages at Low Frequency
		15.16 Inductance of a Pair of Concentric Cylinders
			15.16.1 Inductance of an Isolated Twin Line
		15.17 Energy Stored in an Electromagnetic Field
		15.18 Magnetic Energy Stored in an Inductor
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	16: Single Phase Alternating
Voltage and Current
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Comparison of a.c. and d.c.
		16.3 The Sine Wave
		16.4 Basic a.c. Generator
			16.4.1 a.c. Values
		16.5 Phasor Diagrams
		16.6 Addition of Sinusoidal Waveforms
			16.6.1 Out-of-phase Waveforms
		16.7 Alternate Treatment: A.C. Values
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	17:
Three-phase Circuits and Systems
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Why Three Phase?
		17.3 Generating Three-Phase Voltage
		17.4 Phase and Line Voltages
		17.5 Star Connection
		17.6 Delta Connection
		17.7 Y– Δ Change Over Switch
		17.8 Supply of Three-Phase Electrical Energy
		17.9 Balanced and Unbalanced Loads
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	18:
Complex Algebra
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 The J-Operator
		18.3 Inductive Reactance
		18.4 Capacitive Reactance
		18.5 Rectangular and Polar Notation
		18.6 Rules of Complex Algebra
		18.7 Admittance, Conductance, and Susceptance
		18.8 Impedance and Admittance Triangles
		Summary
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	19:
Work, Power and Energy
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Work Done by an Electric Current
			19.2.1 Electric Heating
			19.2.2 Transfer of Heat
		19.3 Methods of Heating Rooms
			19.3.1 Types of Electric Heater
		19.4 Heating Water
		19.5 Power
		19.6 Power in a Resistance
		19.7 Power in a.c Circuits
		19.8 Three-Phase Power
		19.9 Energy
			19.9.1 Energy Conversion
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	20:
Power Factor Correction
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 The Need for Correction
		20.3 Power Factor Correction
		20.4 Types of Compensation
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	21:
LCR Circuits
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Inductive Reactance
		21.3 Capacitive Reactance
		21.4 Filtering
		21.5 Basic Series a.c. Circuits
		21.6 The Concept of Impedance
		21.7 Series Connected Impedances
		21.8 Polar Notation
		21.9 Parallel Connected Impedances
		21.10 Components of Current
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	22:
Resonance
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Series Resonance
		22.3 Q-Quality Factor of a Series Circuit
		22.4 Selectivity and Bandwidth
		22.5 Parallel Resonance
		22.6 Parallel Resonant Circuits
		22.7 Quality Factor of a Parallel Network
		22.8 Impedances in Parallel
		22.9 Resonant Filters
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	23:
The Fourier Series
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Complex Waveforms
		23.3 Synthesis of Non-sinusoidal Waveforms
		23.4 The Fourier Series
		23.5 Analyzing a Complex Waveform
		23.6 Summary of Properties of Fourier Analysis
			23.6.1 Waveform Symmetry
			23.6.2 Complex Waveform Considerations
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	24:
Networks (a.c.)
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Voltage Division
		24.3 Current Division
		24.4 Superposition Theorem
		24.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
		24.6 Constant Voltage Generator
		24.7 Constant-Current Generator
		24.8 Norton’s Theorem
		24.9 Procedure for Solving a Network Using Thevenin’s Theorem
		24.10 Procedure for Solving a Network Using Norton’s Theorem
		24.11 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
		24.12 Millman’s Theorem
		24.13 Reciprocity Theorem
		24.14 Duality
		24.15 A.C. Circuit Analysis
			24.15.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
			24.15.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
		24.16 Mesh-Current and Nodal Analysis
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	25: Delta⇆
WyeTransformations
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Delta and Star Connections
		25.3 Transformations
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	26:
Attenuators and Filters
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 The Decibel
			26.2.1 Logarithmic Units
			26.2.2 Two-port Networks
			26.2.3 Power, Current, and Voltage Ratios
			26.2.4 The Decibel and the Neper
		26.3 Characteristic Impedance
		26.4 Symmetrical T-Attenuator
		26.5 Symmetrical Π-Attenuator
		26.6 Insertion Loss
		26.7 Asymmetrical T - and Π - Sections
		26.8 The L-Section Attenuator
		26.9 Cascading Two-Port Networks
		26.10 Filters
		26.11 Types of Filters
		26.12 Active and Passive Filters
		26.13 Frequency Response
		26.14 Symmetrical Networks
			26.14.1 Asymmetrical Networks
			26.14.2 Recurrent Networks
		26.15 Equivalence of Balanced and Unbalanced Sections
		26.16 Maclaurin’s Theorem
		26.17 Circular Functions
		26.18 Hyperbolic Functions
			26.18.1 Hyperbolic Identities
			26.18.2 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions
			26.18.3 Complex Hyperbolic Functions
		26.19 Theorem Connecting α
 and Z0
			26.19.1 Cut-off Frequency
		26.20 Prototype (Constant K) Filter Sections
			26.20.1 Low-pass Filters
			26.20.2 High-pass Filters
		26.21 M-Derived Filters
			26.21.1 Low-pass m-derived Sections
			26.21.2 High-pass m-derived Sections
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	27:
Transmission Lines
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 The Infinite Line
		27.3 Short Line Terminated in Z0
			27.3.1 Determination of Z0
 (for a Short Line)
		27.4 Transmission Line Parameters
		27.5 Phase Delay, Wavelength and Velocity of Propagation
		27.6 Current and Voltage Along an Infinite Line
		27.7 Propagation Constant
		27.8 Line Constants
			27.8.1 Relationship Between Primary and Secondary Line Constants
			27.8.2. Characteristic Impedance in Terms of Primary Line Constants
			27.8.3 Propagation Coefficient in Terms of Primary Line Constants
		27.9 Conditions for Minimum Attenuation
		27.10 Distortion
		27.11 Loading
			27.11.1 Cut-off Frequency
		27.12 Reflection
			27.12.1 Reflection Coefficient
			27.12.2 General Line Equations From
Reflection Considerations
		27.13 Open-circuited Termination
		27.14 Short-circuited Termination
		27.15 Standing Waves
			27.15.1 Development of the Standing Wave
			27.15.2 Voltage Standing Wave
Ratio (VSWR)
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	28: First and Second
Order Systems
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 First Order Systems
		28.3 Solving the Equation
		28.4 General Procedure
		28.5 Signal Waveforms
		28.6 Second-o
rder Circuits
		28.7 The Characteristic Equation
			28.7.1 Roots Real and Distinct
			28.7.2 Roots Complex
			28.7.3 Roots Real and Equal
		28.8 The Complex Plane
		28.9 Impedance Concepts
		28.10 Initial and Final Conditions
		28.11 The Admittance Concept
		28.12 Forced Response
			28.12.1 Response to Exponentials
		28.13 Complete Response
		28.14 Components of the Complete Response
		28.15 Characteristics of the Components
			28.15.1 Procedure
		28.16 Network Functions for the One-Port and Two-Port
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	29:
Laplace Transform
		29.1 Introduction
		29.2 Flowchart for Mathematical Procedure
		29.3 The Laplace Transformation
		29.4 Basic Theorems of Linearity
		29.5 Step Function
		29.6 Exponential Function
		29.7 Sine and Cosine Functions
		29.8 Laplace Transform Operations
			29.8.1 Derivative of a Time Function
			29.8.2 Integral of Time Function
			29.8.3 Multiplication by e– at
			29.8.4 Initial Value Theorem
			29.8.5 Final Value Theorem
		29.9 Inverse Laplace Transformation
			29.9.1 Poles and Zeros
			29.9.2 Classification of Poles
		29.10 Use of Partial Fractions for Inverse Laplace Transforms
		29.11 Inverse Laplace Transforms and the Solution of Differential Equations
		29.12 Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms
			29.12.1 Transform Impedance and Admittance
			29.12.2 Resistance
			29.12.3 Capacitance
			29.12.4 Inductance
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	30:
Coupled Circuits
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 Degree of Coupling
		30.3 Classification of Coupled Circuits
		30.4 Category (I)
			30.4.1 Category (ii)
			30.4.2 Category (iii)
		30.5 Impedance of Coupled Circuits
		Summary
		Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
		Conventional Questions (CQ)
	Index