Efficiency and Sustainability in the Energy and Chemical Industries

Cover
Half Title
Series
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Series Editor Introduction
Preface
About the Author
Part I Basics
	Chapter 1 Introduction
		References
	Chapter 2 Thermodynamics Revisited
		2.1 The System and Its Environment
		2.2 States and State Properties
		2.3 Processes and Their Conditions
		2.4 The First Law
		2.5 The Second Law and Boltzmann
		2.6 The Second Law and Clausius
		2.7 Change in Composition
		2.8 The Structure of a Thermodynamic Application
		References
	Chapter 3 Energy “Consumption” and Lost Work
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 The Carnot Factor
		3.3 Lessons from a Heat Exchanger
		3.4 Lost Work and Entropy Generation
		3.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4 Entropy Generation: Cause and Effect
		4.1 Equilibrium Thermodynamics
		4.2 On Forces and Flows: Cause and Effect
		4.3 Cause and Effect: The Relation between Forces and Flows
		4.4 Coupling
		4.5 Limited Validity of Linear Laws
		4.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5 Reduction of Lost Work
		5.1 A Remarkable Triangle
		5.2 Carnot Revisited: From Ideal to Real Processes
		5.3 Finite-Time, Finite-Size Thermodynamics
		5.4 The Principle of Equipartitioning
		5.5 Conclusion
		References
Part II Thermodynamic Analysis of Processes
	Chapter 6 Exergy, a Convenient Concept
		6.1 Exergy
		6.2 The Convenience of the Exergy Concept
			6.2.1 Out of Equilibrium with the Environment: What It Takes to Get There
			6.2.2 Out of Equilibrium with the Environment: What It Takes to Stay There
			6.2.3 Dissipative Structures
			6.2.4 Physical and Chemical Exergy
		6.3 Example of a Simple Analysis
		6.4 The Quality of the Joule
		6.5 Example of the Quality Concept
		6.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7 Chemical Exergy
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Exergy of Mixing
		7.3 Chemical Exergy
			7.3.1 Reference Components from Air
			7.3.2 Exergy Values of the Elements
			7.3.3 Chemical Exergy Values of Compounds
			7.3.4 The Convenience of the Chemical Exergy Concept
		7.4 Cumulative Exergy Consumption
		7.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8 Simple Applications
		References
Part III Case Studies
	Chapter 9 Energy Conversion
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Global Energy Consumption
		9.3 Global Exergy Flows
		9.4 Exergy or Lost Work Analysis
		9.5 Electric Power Generation
			9.5.1 Steam Plants
			9.5.2 Gas Turbines
			9.5.3 Combined Cycle
			9.5.4 Nuclear Power
			9.5.5 Hydropower
			9.5.6 Wind Power
			9.5.7 Solar Power
			9.5.8 Geothermal Energy
		9.6 Coal Conversion Processes
			9.6.1 Fixed or Moving Beds
			9.6.2 Suspended Beds
			9.6.3 Fluidized Beds
			9.6.4 Thermodynamic Analysis of Coal Combustion
			9.6.5 Discussion
			9.6.6 Coal Gasification
		9.7 Thermodynamic Analysis of Gas Combustion
			9.7.1 Exergy In
			9.7.2 Air Requirements
			9.7.3 Exergy Out
			9.7.4 Efficiency
			9.7.5 Discussion
		9.8 Steam Power Plant
		9.9 Gas Turbines, Combined Cycles, and Cogeneration
			9.9.1 Gas Turbines
			9.9.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of Gas Turbines
			9.9.3 Combined Cycles, Cogeneration, and Cascading
			9.9.4 Example
		9.10 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 10 Separations
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Propane, Propylene, and Their Separation
			10.2.1 Single-Column Process
			10.2.2 Double-Column Process
			10.2.3 Heat Pump Process
		10.3 Basics
			10.3.1 Flash Distillation
			10.3.2 Multistage Distillation and Reflux
		10.4 The Ideal Column: Thermodynamic Analysis
		10.5 The Real Column
		10.6 Exergy Analysis with a Flow Sheet Program
		10.7 Remedies
			10.7.1 Making Use of Waste Heat
			10.7.2 Membranes
			10.7.3 Other Methods
		10.8 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 11 Chemical Conversion
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Polyethylene Processes: A Brief Overview
			11.2.1 Polyethylene High-Pressure Tubular Process
			11.2.2 Polyethylene Gas-Phase Process
		11.3 Exergy Analysis: Preliminaries
		11.4 Results of the HP LDPE Process Exergy Analysis
		11.5 Process Improvement Options
			11.5.1 Lost Work Reduction by the Use of a Turbine
			11.5.2 Alternative to the Extruder
			11.5.3 Process Improvement Options: Estimated Savings
		11.6 Results of the Gas-Phase Polymerization Process Exergy Analysis
		11.7 Process Improvement Options
			11.7.1 Coupling Reactions and Chemical Heat Pump System
			11.7.2 Exergy Loss Reduction by Recovering Butylene and Ethylene from Purge Gas
			11.7.3 Heat Pump and Preheating of Polymer
			11.7.4 An Alternative to the Extruder
			11.7.5 Process Improvement Options: Estimated Savings
		11.8 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 12 A Note on Life Cycle Analysis
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Life Cycle Analysis Methodology
			12.2.1 Goal and Scope
			12.2.2 Inventory Analysis
			12.2.3 Impact Assessment
			12.2.4 Interpretation and Action
		12.3 Life Cycle Analysis and Exergy
		12.4. Zero-Emission ELCA
		12.5 Example of a Simple Analysis
		12.6. Concluding Remarks
		References
Part IV Sustainability
	Chapter 13 Sustainable Development
		13.1 Sustainable Development
			13.1.1 Three Views
			13.1.2 Some Other Views
		13.2 Nature as an Example of Sustainability
		13.3 A Sustainable Economic System
			13.3.1 Thermodynamics, Economics, and Ecology
			13.3.2 Economics and Ecology
			13.3.3 Nature’s Capital and Services
			13.3.4 Adjustment of the Gross National Product
			13.3.5 Intermezzo: Thermodynamics and Economics—A Daring Comparison and Analogy
		13.4 Toward a Solar-Fueled Society: A Thermodynamic Perspective
			13.4.1 Thermodynamic Analysis of a Power Station
			13.4.2 Some Observations
			13.4.3 From Fossil to Solar
		13.5 Ecological Restrictions
			13.5.1 Ecological Footprint
			13.5.2 Waste
		13.6 Thermodynamic Criteria for Sustainability Analysis
			13.6.1 Introduction
			13.6.2 Sustainable Resource Utilization Parameter α
			13.6.3 Notes on Determining Depletion Times and Abundance Factors
			13.6.4 Exergy Efficiency η
			13.6.5 The Environmental Compatibility ξ
			13.6.6 Determining Overall Sustainability
			13.6.7 Related Work
		13.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14 Efficiency and Sustainability in the Chemical Process Industry
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Lost Work in the Process Industry
		14.3 The Processes
		14.4 Thermodynamic Efficiency
		14.5 Efficient Use of High-Quality Resources
		14.6 Toward Sustainability
		14.7 Chemical Routes
		14.8 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 15 Plastics Recycling
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Sorting of Plastic
		15.3 Waste Frameworks
		15.4 Mechanical Recycling
		15.5 Chemical Recycling
		15.6 Melt Pyrolysis of Polyolefins
		References
	Chapter 16 Project Economics, Taxes, and Subsidies for Sustainability
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Why Process and Project Economics?
		16.3 Technology Strategy
		16.4 Taxes, Cap-and-Trade, and Subsidies
		References
	Chapter 17 Low Carbon
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Hierarchy of Solutions
		17.3 Avoid CO₂
		17.4 Reduce CO₂
		17.5 Capture CO₂ at Source
		17.6 Capture CO₂ from Atmosphere
		References
	Chapter 18 A Changing Energy Mix
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Future Energy Mix
		18.3 Net Zero and Beyond
		18.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 19 CO₂ Capture and Sequestration
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 CO₂ Emissions
		19.3 The Carbon Cycle
		19.4 Carbon Sequestration: Separation and Storage and Reuse of CO₂
		19.5 Carbon Capture Research
		19.6 Geologic Sequestration Research
			19.6.1 Oil and Gas Reservoirs
			19.6.2 Coal Bed Methane
			19.6.3 Saline Formations
			19.6.4 CO₂ Mineralization
			19.6.5 Efficiency of CO₂ Capture and Sequestration
		19.7 Carbon Tax and Cap-and-Trade
		19.8 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 20 Sense and Nonsense of Green Chemistry and Biofuels
		20.1 Introduction
			20.1.1 What Is Green?
			20.1.2 What Is Biomass?
			20.1.3 Biomass as a Resource
			20.1.4 Structure of This Chapter
		20.2 Principles of Green Chemistry
		20.3 Raw Materials
			20.3.1 Biomass
			20.3.2 Recycling
		20.4 Conversion Technologies
			20.4.1 Combustion
			20.4.2 Pyrolysis
			20.4.3 Gasification
			20.4.4 Upgrading Biomass
		20.5 How Green Are Green Plastics?
			20.5.1 Optimism in the United States
			20.5.2 Initiatives in Europe
			20.5.3 From a Hydrocarbon to a Carbohydrate Economy?
			20.5.4 Feelings of Discomfort
				20.5.4.1 Case Study 20.1: Green Plastics
			20.5.5 Short Memory: Ignorance or Not Welcome?
		20.6 Biofuels: Reality or Illusion?
			20.6.1 Multidisciplinarity
				20.6.1.1 Case Study 20.2: Bioethanol from Corn
			20.6.2 Second-Generation Biofuels
			20.6.3 The Fossil Load Factor
			20.6.4 Sustainability and Efficiency
			20.6.5 Algae
			20.6.6 The Future
			20.6.7 Sense or Nonsense? Discussion
		20.7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 21 Solar Energy Conversion
		21.1 Introduction: “Lighting the Way”
		21.2 Characteristics
		21.3 The Creation of Wind Energy
		21.4 Photothermal Conversion
		21.5 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
		21.6 Photosynthesis
		21.7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 22 Hydrogen: Fuel of the Future?
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 The Hydrogen Economy
		22.3 Current Hydrogen Economy
		22.4 Conventional Hydrogen Production from Conventional Sources—Gray, Brown, and Blue Hydrogen
		22.5 Hydrogen from Renewables
		22.6 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier
		22.7 Hydrogen as a Transportation Fuel
		22.8 Efficiency of Obtaining Transportation Fuels
		22.9 Challenges of the Hydrogen Economy
		22.10 Hydrogen Production: Centralized or Decentralized?
		22.11 Infrastructure
		22.12 Hydrogen Storage
		22.13 Fuel Cells as a Possible Alternative to Internal Combustion
		22.14 Costs of the Hydrogen Economy
		22.15 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 23 Future Trends
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Energy Industries
		23.3 Chemical Industries
		23.4 Changing Opinions on Investment
		23.5 Transition
		23.6 Concluding Remarks
		References
Index